Indicator Assessment

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions

Indicator Assessment

Prod-ID: IND-169-en

Also known as: APE 001

Published 21 Dec 2011 Last modified 11 May 2021

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Topics: Energy Environment and health

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EEA-32 emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) have decreased by 76% between 1990 and 2009. In 2009, the most significant sectoral source of SO_X emissions was Energy production and distribution (70%), followed by emissions occurring from Energy use in industry (13%) and in the Commercial, institutional and households (9%) sector.
The reduction in emissions since 1990 has been achieved as a result of a combination of measures, including fuel-switching in energy-related sectors away from high sulphur-containing solid and liquid fuels to low sulphur fuels such as natural gas, the fitting of flue gas desulphurisation abatement technology in industrial facilities and the impact of European Union directives relating to the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels.
All of the EU-27 Member States have already reduced their national SO_X emissions below the level of the 2010 emission ceilings set in the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD). Emissions in 2009 for the three non-EU countries having emission ceilings set under the UNECE/CLRTAP Gothenburg protocol (Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland) were also below the level of the respective 2010 ceilings.
Environmental context: Sulphur dioxide is emitted when fuels containing sulphur are combusted. It is a pollutant which contributes to acid deposition which in turn can lead to potential changes occurring in soil and water quality. The subsequent impacts of acid deposition can be significant, including adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems in rivers and lakes and damage to forests, crops and other vegetation. SO_X emissions also contribute as a secondary particulate pollutant to formation of particulate matter in the atmosphere, an important air pollutant in terms of its adverse impact on human health.

This indicator is discontinued. No more assessments will be produced.

Fig. 1: Emission trends of sulphur oxides (EEA member countries, EU-27 Member States)

Note: This chart shows past emission trends of sulphur dioxide in the EEA-32 and EU-27 group of countries. In addition - for the EU-27 - the 2010 emission ceiling and aggregated projections reported by Member States are shown.

Data source:

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Fig. 2: Change in emissions of sulphur oxides compared with the 2010 NECD and Gothenburg protocol targets (EEA member countries)

Note: The reported change in sulphur dioxide emissions (SO2) for each country, 1990-2009, in comparison with the 2010 NECD and Gothenburg protocol targets.

Data source:

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Fig. 3: Distance-to-target for EEA member countries

Note: The distance-to-target indicator shows how current emissions compare to a linear emission reduction 'target-path' between 1990 emission levels and the 2010 emission ceiling for each country. Negative percentage values indicate the current emissions in a country are below the linear target path; positive values show that current emission lie above a linear target path to 2010.

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Significant progress in reducing SO_X emissions has been made by many countries; EEA-32 emissions of SO_X have decreased by 76% between 1990 and 2009. Within the EEA-32 group of countries, all have reported lower emissions in 2009 compared to 1990 except Luxembourg (almost 20 times greater), Hungary (around eight times greater) and Iceland (four times greater). The large apparent magnitudes of these increases in Luxembourg, and Hungary are mainly due to the inclusion in 2009 reports of emissions from sectors which were not reported in 1990; for example, only ‘Industrial processes’ emissions are reported in CRF data from Hungary in 1990, and Luxembourg in 1990-2005, whilst in 2009 LRTAP submissions emissions are reported in the majority of sectors in both countries.

The large increase in SO_X emissions in Iceland, from 20 kt in 1990 to 80 kt in 2009, is due chiefly to the reported emissions from the ‘Energy production and distribution’ sector rising by 52 kt since 1990. This sector alone now contributes 20% of Iceland’s total emissions in 2009. More specifically, these emissions are mostly comprised of emissions from activities related to fugitive emissions from geothermal energy production, peat and other energy extraction. All of the EU-27 Member States have already reduced their national SO_X emissions below the level of the emission ceilings set in the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD).

Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Turkey are not members of the European Union and hence have no emission ceilings set under the NECD. However, Norway and Switzerland have ratified the UNECE LRTAP Convention’s Gothenburg Protocol, requiring them to reduce their emissions to the agreed ceiling specified in the protocol by 2010. Liechtenstein has also signed, but not ratified the protocol. All three countries have reported emissions in 2009 that were lower than their respective 2010 Gothenburg Protocol ceilings.

The NECD and Gothenburg protocol are currently being reviewed. The revision of the NECD is part of the implementation of the Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution, and a proposal for a revised directive is expected by 2013. A proposal for a revised Gothenburg protocol is presently under international negotiation. The revised protocol is expected to include emission ceilings to be met by 2020 for the four already regulated substances (NO_X, NMVOCs, SO_X and NH₃) and in addition for primary emissions of PM_2.5.

Fig. 5: Change in sulphur oxides emissions for each sector between 1990 and 2009 (EEA member countries)

Note: Percentage change in sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions for each sector between 1990 and 2009.

Data source:

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Fig. 6: Contribution to total change in SOx emissions for each sector (EEA member countries)

Note: The contribution made by each sector to the total change in sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions between 1990 and 2009.

Data source:

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Substantial SO_X emission reductions have been made across a number of sectors including: ‘Road transport’ (a 98% reduction between 1990 and 2009), ‘Energy use in industry' (80%), 'Commercial, institutional and households ' (76%) and 'Waste' (72).

The ‘Energy production and distribution ' sector (encompassing activities such as power and heat generation) is responsible for the largest reduction in absolute terms of emissions, contributing more than 53% of the total reduction in SO_X emissions reported by countries. Nevertheless, despite this significant reduction, this single sector remains the most significant source of SO_X in the EEA-32 region, contributing 70% of total SO_X emissions. Across Europe there is also an increasing awareness of the contribution made to SO_X pollutant emissions by national and international ship traffic, and especially the health effects of such emissions whilst at berth (a more detailed discussion of this issue is contained in the TERM indicator fact sheet TERM03 - Transport emissions of air pollutants). From 1st January 2010 all ships using fuel at berth in EU ports for significant periods were required to use exclusively low-sulphur fuel (0.1%), and from 1st July 2010, within SECAs (Sulphur Emission Control Areas) defined in the North Sea, English Channel and Baltic Sea, all ships were required to use fuel with sulphur content not exceeding 1.0%. A reduction in reported SO_X emissions may therefore be expected for years from 2010, and further reductions in later years as additional legislation comes into force.

A combination of measures has led to the reductions in SO_X emissions. This includes fuel-switching from high-sulphur solid (e.g. coal) and liquid (e.g. heavy fuel oil) fuels to low sulphur fuels (such as natural gas) for power and heat production purposes within the energy, industry and domestic sectors, improvements in energy efficiency, and the installation of flue gas desulphurisation equipment in new and existing industrial facilities. The implementation of several directives within the EU limiting the sulphur content of fuel quality has also contributed to the decrease.

The newer Member States of the European Union have in a number of cases also undergone significant economic structural changes since the early 1990s which has led to a general decline in certain activities which previously contributed significantly to high levels of sulphur emissions (e.g. heavy industry) and the closure of older inefficient power plants.

Supporting information

Indicator definition

The indicator tracks trends since 1990 in anthropogenic emissions of sulphur dioxide.
The indicator also provides information on emissions by sector: energy production and distribution; energy use in industry;, industrial processes; road transport; non-road transport; commercial, institutional and households; solvent and product use; agriculture; waste; other.
Geographical coverage: EEA-32. The EEA-32 country grouping includes countries of the EU-27 (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) EFTA-4 (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Switzerland and Norway) and Turkey.
Temporal coverage: 1990-2010

Units

ktonnes (1000 tonnes)

Rationale

Justification for indicator selection

Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) is emitted when fuels containing sulphur are combusted. Sulphur dioxide is a pollutant that contributes to acid deposition, which, in turn, can lead to potential changes in soil and water quality. The subsequent impacts of acid deposition can be significant, including adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems in rivers and lakes and damage to forests, crops and other vegetation. In many cases, the deposition of acidifying substances still exceeds the critical loads of the ecosystems (see EEA indicator CSI 005 'Exposure of ecosystems to acidification, eutrophication and ozone'). Acidification can also damage buildings and cultural monuments. Further details concerning emissions of acidifying pollutants are provided in EEA's Core Set Indicator CSI 001 'Emissions of acidifying substances'.

As a secondary particulate matter precursor, SO₂ also contributes to the formation of particulate aerosols in the atmosphere. Particulate matter is an important air pollutant due to its adverse impacts on human health, and SO₂ is therefore also indirectly linked to effects on human health (see EEA's Core Set Indicator CSI 003 'Emissions of primary particles and secondary particulate precursors' for further details concerning emissions of particulate matter).

Scientific references

No rationale references available

Policy context and targets

Context description

A number of policies have been implemented within Europe that either directly or indirectly act to reduce emissions of SO₂. These include:

The National Emission Ceilings Directive 2001/81/EC (NECD), which entered into force in the European Community in 2001: The NECD sets emission ceilings for four important air pollutants (SO₂, nitrogen oxides (NO_x)_,ammonia (NH₃) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs)) to be achieved from 2010 onwards for each Member State. The ceilings are designed to improve the protection of the environment and human health in the Community against risks of adverse effects arising from acidification, eutrophication and ground level ozone. The NECD is presently under review, the European Commission may adopt a proposal for a revised Directive during 2010.

The Gothenburg Protocol (1999) to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's (UNECE) Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention) to abate acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone: A key objective of the protocol is to regulate emissions on a regional basis within Europe and to protect eco-systems from transboundary pollution by setting emission reduction ceilings to be reached by 2010 for the same four pollutants as addressed in the NECD (i.e. SO₂, NO_x, NH₃ and NMVOCs). Overall, for EU Member States, the ceilings set within the Gothenburg protocol are generally either slightly less strict or the same as the emission ceilings specified in the NECD.
The Directive for the Sulphur content of Certain Fuels (93/12/EC): This requires Member States to cease the use of heavy fuel oil with a sulphur content greater than 1% by mass from 2001, and the use of gas oil with a sulphur content greater than 0.2% from 2001 and greater than 0.1% from 2008.
The Large Combustion Plant Directive 2001/80/EC (LCPD): This is important in reducing emissions of SO₂, NO_x and dust from combustion plants with a thermal input capacity equal to or greater than 50 MW. Installations within the scope of this Directive include power stations, petroleum refineries, steelworks and other industrial processes running on solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. "New" plants must meet the emission limit values (ELVs) given in the LCPD. However Member States can choose to meet obligations for existing plants (i.e. those in operation pre-1987) by either complying with the ELVs or by operating within a national emission reduction plan (NERP) that sets a ceiling for each pollutant. The interaction of the LCPD and the IPPC Directive (see below) is currently being examined as part of a review of the IPPC Directive.
The Directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (96/61/EC), which entered into force in 1999: This Directive aims to prevent or minimise pollution to air, water or land from various industrial sources throughout the European Union. Those installations covered by Annex I of the IPPC Directive are required to obtain authorisation from the authorities to operate. New installations and existing installations, which are subject to 'substantial changes', have been obliged to meet the requirements of the IPPC Directive since 30 October 1999. Other existing installations must have been brought into compliance by the 30 October 2007. The emission limit values outlined in the permit conditions must be based on best available techniques (BAT). The Commission has been undertaking a review of the IPPC Directive and related legislation on industrial emissions and, on 21 December 2007, adopted a proposal for a Directive on industrial emissions. The proposal recasts seven existing Directives relating to industrial emissions (including IPPC and the LCPD) into a single legislative instrument.
The aim of the Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management (the 'Air Quality Framework Directive') is to maintain and improve air quality within the European Community by establishing objectives for ambient air, drawing up common methods and criteria for assessing air quality and obtaining and disseminating information. The "Daughter" Directive 99/30/EC of the Air Quality Framework Directive entered into force in 1999 and sets limit values for concentrations of several pollutants including sulphur dioxide.
The European Sulphur Content of Marine Fuels Directive (SCMFD) (2005/33/EC): This requires "Member States to ensure that marine gas oils are not placed on the market in their territory if the sulphur content exceeds 0.1% by mass", amongst other requirements.
The Marpol Convention: This convention covers the prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes. It is a combination of two treaties adopted in 1973 and 1978 and updated by amendments over the years since. Annex VI covers the prevention of air pollution from ships and sets limits on sulphur dioxide emissions from ship exhausts. This came into force in May 2005.
Fuel quality Directive 98/70/EC and sulphur-free fuels Directive 2003/17/EC: Current market grade petrol and diesel fuels do not have a sulphur level exceeding 50 parts per million (ppm). This is the maximum level of sulphur permitted for road fuels in EU Member States from 2005 under the fuel quality Directive 98/70/EC. The introduction of "sulphur-free fuels", with sulphur levels less than 10 ppm, is required by 1 January 2009 under Directive 2003/17/EC.

Targets

Emissions of SO₂ are covered by the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD) (2001/81/EC) and the Gothenburg protocol under the United Nations Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention) (UNECE 1999). The NECD generally involves slightly stricter emission reduction targets than the Gothenburg Protocol for EU-15 Member States for the period 1990-2010. The Gothenburg Protocol entered into force on 17 May 2005, after ratification by 16 countries early in 2005. The 2012 revision to the Gothenburg protocol proposed emission reduction targets for 2020 relative to 2005 reported emissions for all EU-27 Member States and some EEA-32 non-EU member states.

Table: 2010 SO₂ ceilings under the NEC Directive and the Gothenburg Protocol (kt)

Country	2010 NECD ceilings	2010 CLRTAP Gothenburg Protocol ceilings	2020 CLRTAP Gothenburg Protocol ceilings
Austria	39	39	62
Belgium	99	106	70
Bulgaria	836	856	58
Cyprus	39	N/A	5
Czech Republic	265	283	76
Denmark	55	55	63
Estonia	100	N/A	10
Finland	110	116	31
France	375	400	635
Germany	520	550	544
Greece	523	546	63
Hungary	500	550	72
Iceland^*	N/A	N/A	N/A
Ireland	42	42	108
Italy	475	500	395
Latvia	101	107	16
Liechtenstein	N/A	0.11	N/A
Lithuania	145	145	35
Luxembourg	4	4	5
Malta	9	N/A	2
Netherlands	50	50	123
Norway	N/A	22	21
Poland	1397	1397	267
Portugal	160	170	47
Romania	918	918	173
Slovakia	110	110	25
Slovenia	27	27	18
Spain	746	774	354
Switzerland	N/A	26	59
Sweden	67	67	47
Turkey^*	N/A	N/A	N/A
United Kingdom	585	625	282

^* Iceland and Turkey do not have a ceiling under either the NEC Directive or the Gothenburg protocol.

Methodology

Methodology for indicator calculation

This indicator is based on officially reported national total and sectoral emissions to the EEA and UNECE/EMEP (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe/Co-operative programme for monitoring and evaluation of the long-range transmission of air pollutants in Europe) Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention), submission 2011. For the EU-27 Member States, the data used is consistent with the emissions data reported by the EU in its annual submission to the LRTAP Convention.

Recommended methodologies for emission inventory estimation are compiled in the EMEP/EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Guidebook, (EMEP/EEA, 2009). Base data are available from the EEA Data Service (http://dataservice.eea.europa.eu/dataservice/metadetails.asp?id=1096) and the EMEP web site (http://www.ceip.at/). Where necessary, gaps in reported data are filled by European Topic Centre/EEA using simple interpolation techniques (see below). The final gap-filled data used in this indicator is available from the EEA Data Service (http://dataservice.eea.europa.eu/PivotApp/pivot.aspx?pivotid=478)

Base data, reported in the UNECE/EMEP Nomenclature for Reporting (NFR) sector format are aggregated into the following EEA sector codes to obtain a consistent reporting format across all countries and pollutants:

Energy production and distribution: emissions from public heat and electricity generation, oil refining, production of solid fuels, extraction and distribution of solid fossil fuels and geothermal energy;
Energy use in industry: emissions from combustion processes used in the manufacturing industry including boilers, gas turbines and stationary engines;
Industrial processes: emissions derived from non-combustion related processes such as the production of minerals, chemicals and metal production;
Road transport: light and heavy duty vehicles, passenger cars and motorcycles;
Non-road transport: railways, domestic shipping, certain aircraft movements, and non-road mobile machinery used in agriculture and forestry;
Commercial, institutional and households: emissions principally occurring from fuel combustion in the services and household sectors;
Solvent and product use: non-combustion related emissions mainly in the services and households sectors including activities such as paint application, dry-cleaning and other use of solvents;
Agriculture: manure management, fertiliser application, field-burning of agricultural wastes
Waste: incineration, waste-water management;
Other: emissions included in national total for entire territory not allocated to any other sector.

The following table shows the conversion of Nomenclature for Reporting (NFR) sector codes used for reporting by countries into EEA sector codes:

EEA classification	Non-GHGs (NFR)
National totals	National total
Energy production and distribution	1A1, 1A3e, 1B
Energy use in industry	1A2
Road Transport	1A3b
Non-road transport (non-road mobile machinery)	1A3 (excl. 1A3b)
Industrial processes	2
Solvent and product use	3
Agriculture	4
Waste	6
Commercial, institutional and households	1A4ai, 1A4aii, 1A4bi, 1A4bii, 1A4ci, 1A4cii, 1A5a, 1A5b
Other	7

Methodology for gap filling

An improved gap-filling methodology was implemented in 2010 that enables a complete time series trend for the main air pollutants (eg NO_X, SO_X, NMVOC, NH₃ and CO) to be compiled. In cases where countries did not report emissions for any year, it meant that gap-filling could not be applied. For these pollutants, therefore, the aggregated data is not yet complete and is likely to underestimate true emissions. Further methodological details of the gap-filling procedure are provided in section 1.4.2 'Data gaps and gap-filling' of the European Union emission inventory report 1990–2009 under the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP).

Methodology references

EEA (2011). European Union emission inventory report 1990 — 2009 under the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). EEA technical report No 9/2011. Copenhagen.
EMEP/EEA (2009). EMEP/EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Guidebook - 2009 This 2009 update of the emission inventory guidebook prepared by the UNECE/EMEP Task Force on Emissions Inventories and Projections provides a comprehensive guide to state-of-the-art atmospheric emissions inventory methodology. Its intention is to support reporting under the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution and the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive.
EMEP (2010). Transboundary, acidification, eutrophication and ground level ozone in Europe in 2008 Estimated dispersion of acidifying and eutrophying compounds and comparison with observations.

Uncertainties

Methodology uncertainty

The use of gap-filling when countries have not reported emissions for one or more years can potentially lead to artificial trends, but it is considered unavoidable if a comprehensive and comparable set of emissions data for European countries is required for policy analysis purposes.

Data sets uncertainty

SO₂ emission estimates in Europe are thought to have an uncertainty of about ±10% as the sulphur comes from the fuel burnt and therefore can be accurately estimated. However, because of the need for interpolation to account for missing data, the complete dataset used will have higher uncertainty. EMEP has compared modelled and measured concentrations throughout Europe (EMEP 2010). From these studies, differences in the annual averages have been estimated to be ±30%, which is consistent with an inventory uncertainty of ±10% (there are also uncertainties in the measurements and especially the modelling). The trend is likely to be much more accurate than individual absolute values

Overall scoring: (1-3, 1=no major problems, 3=major reservations)

Relevancy: 1
Accuracy: 2
Comparability over time: 2
Comparability over space: 2

Rationale uncertainty

This indicator is regularly updated by the EEA and is used in state of the environment assessments. The uncertainties related to methodology and data sets are therefore of importance. Any uncertainties involved in the calculation and in the data sets need to be accurately communicated in the assessment, to prevent erroneous messages influencing policy actions or processes.

Data sources

National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive Inventory
provided by Directorate-General for Environment (DG ENV)
National emissions reported to the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention)
provided by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

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For references, please go to https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/eea-32-sulphur-dioxide-so2-emissions-1/assessment-1 or scan the QR code.

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Filed under: air quality, csi, so2, air pollution indicators, air emissions, sox, pollution