Emissions and energy use in large combustion plants in Europe

Between 2004 and 2022, emissions from large combustion plants in the EU decreased: sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and dust by 92%, and nitrogen oxides (NOx) by 70%. Declines in emissions and improvements in environmental performance were largely driven by European policy, which sets legally binding emission limit values. Fossil fuel useage decreased by 35% as energy production shifts to climate-friendly sources, even if coal has returned as the most used fuel in large combustion plants in Europe. Stricter emission limit values and policies aimed at increasing the use of renewable or cleaner fuels are expected to drive further declines in combustion plant emissions in coming years.

Emission of dust, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide from large combustion plants in the EU-27

As of 2022, large combustion plants (LCPs) are responsible for almost 40% of the EU’s electricity production capacity. These largely depend on fossil fuels, resulting in the emission of pollutants to air, water and land, causing damaging our ecosystems. To mitigate the environmental impact, EU policy aims to reduce LCP emissions.

Emissions from LCPs decreased significantly during 2004-2022: SO₂ and dust by 92% and NO_x by 70%. This decreased highlighted two main turning points; 1) over the period 2007-2009, LCP operators had the double effect of needing to adapt their plants to new emission limit values from the LCP Directive and the financial crisis that started at the end of 2008, and 2) around 2015-2016 coincided with the moment operators had to comply with stricter limits set by the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED), which entered into full force.

LCPs vary significantly in size, from 50MWt to even larger than 2,000MWt. Declines in emissions correspond to a significant improvement in environmental performance across all LCP sizes, particularly among the very large ones, which, although including only 21% of LCPs, accounts for 70% of installed capacity. These reductions demonstrate the value of European policy in driving improvements in the environmental performance of LCPs, with LCP operators adopting pollution reduction measures, more efficient operating processes and end-of-pipe pollution abatement techniquesto comply with legislation.

In 2022, 3,139 LCPs, were covered by the scope of the IED. European countries rely to different degrees on combustion plants to meet their energy demands. However, generally, the number of plants in a given country is proportional to its size and population. Czechia, Malta and Slovakia did not report 2022 data, and therefore the number of plants in Europe is estimated to be 4,047, taking into account the latest number from these four countries.

The fuel mix plays a key role in emission generation, with coal and liquid fuels substantially dirtier than other options. Shifting from fossil fuels to other energy carriers and sources is paramount to achieve climate mitigation goals. Changes to the fuel mix contributed to emission reductions over the period with other factors, including changes to a broader economy and society, international fuel prices and industry initiatives.

The war in Ukraine impacted natural gas prices in 2022. Coal was the major fuel input, surpassing natural gas for the first time since 2019. Future data will show if this may be a slowdown of the phase-out from coal progression. Natural gas and coal combined, two fossil fuels, are still very significant in the overall mix covering almost 75% of the total fuel input (Figure 2) of the combustion sector. More emission reductions are expected in the coming years as a result of stricter IED permits, and energy and climate change mitigation policies, driving the use of renewable or cleaner fuels aimed at achieving the EU’s ambition of becoming climate neutral by 2050 .

Fuel consumption in the EU-27, per fuel type

Overall, LCP fuel consumption decreased by 35% between 2004 and 2022 (Figure 2). Largely attributed to a decrease in the consumption of fossil fuels, particularly coal (down 46% since 2010) and liquid fuels (down 36% since 2010), this mostly occurred after 2010. It could reflect a shift in Europe’s energy system from fossil fuels to renewable sources, with natural gas still playing a bridging role in this transition.

The war in Ukraine impact and rise of natural gas prices in 2022 are reflected on the overall consumption in 2022. Coal was the largest contributor covering 37% of the consumption, followed by natural gas (36%) and consumption of liquid fuel increased by 14% from 2021 levels. This pause in the coal phase-out should be monitored in the near future as it may have a negative impact on achieving the goals set by the European Green Deal.

All EU countries reduced coal use over the 2004-2022 period, with five (Germany, Spain, Italy, Greece and Poland) contributing for around 70% of the reduction in coal consumption (Figure 2) in 2022. However, coal still accounts for more than 50% of the fuel input in large combustion plant in four countries (Bulgaria, Estonia, Poland and Slovenia). Another interesting phenomenon is the consistent increase of biomass as a fuel input (86% since 2010). While this has its origin in climate mitigation goals, it can result in increases of air pollution, particularly particulate matter, and volatile organic compounds .

Supporting information

Definition

This indicator tracks trends for the so-called Large Combustion Plants' (LCPs) emissions of SO₂, NO_x and dust, as well as the evolution of the energy mix used in these plants since 2004. LCPs comprise industrial combustion plants with a total rated thermal input equal to or greater than 50MW.

The geographical coverage comprises the 27 EU Member States (EU-27) (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden).

The temporal coverage is 2004-2022. Data for the period 2004-2015 were reported under Directive 2001/80/EC on large combustion plants, while for 2016 onwards they were reported under Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions. The requirements are not identical, and it is expected for data from 2016 onwards to have a slightly broader scope in terms of plants included.

Methodology

Methodology for indicator calculation

Queries are applied to the Industrial Emissions Database to extract and aggregate emissions reported individually for each LCP in Europe to produce Figure 1. In a similar manner, queries extract and aggregate fuel use data to produce Figure 2.

Fig. 1: Emissions are indexed with reference to 2004 levels. The exact formula is: emissions of pollutant x for the current year/emissions for pollutant x in 2004) × 100.

Fig. 2: Total fuel consumptions per type are summed and provided in the graph. As the data were not reported in the same way before and after 2016, the category 'coal' is the result of the sum of all solid fuels reported.

Methodology for gap filling

Slovakia did not report any data from 2018, Malta did not report any data from 2019 and Czechia did not report data for 2022: in this cases the most recent data were used to gap-fill the trend.

Methodology references

No methodology references available.

Policy/environmental relevance

Justification for indicator selection

No rationale has been identified for this indicator.

Scientific references

No rationale references available.

Context description

Anthropogenic emissions of SO₂, NO_x and dust all contribute to air quality problems in Europe. Excess deposition of sulphur and nitrogen compounds can lead to disturbances in the functioning and structure of ecosystems by, for example, causing the acidification of soils and waters as well as, in the case of nitrogen, the eutrophication of nutrient-poor ecosystems such as grasslands.

LCPs use large amounts of fuels, mostly fossil fuels, to produce useful forms of energy. These plants inevitably generate a number of residues, waste products and emissions to all environmental media (air, water and soil). Emissions from LCPs constitute a significant proportion of total anthropogenic emissions and are considered one of the main environmental pressures from LCPs.

In that context, policy has regulated these plants for decades now. Between 2004 and 2015, two pieces of EU law were in place: the LCP Directive and the IPPC Directive. This EU legislation imposed specific limit values on emissions of NO_x, SO₂ and dust from plants with a thermal rated input equal to or greater than 50MW. Since 1 January 2016, this legislation has been replaced by the IED.

The aim of EU policy on LCPs is to reduce emissions to air, water and land, including measures related to waste, to achieve a high level of protection of the environment as a whole. The focus with regard to LCPs is to reduce emissions of acidifying pollutants, particles and ozone precursors while also covering other environmental concerns (e.g. mercury emissions).

Targets

No targets have been specified.

Methodology uncertainty

This indicator covers the EU-27 countries. However, there are no data for Croatia for 2004-2009. The data for Croatia have not been gap filled, and in the years of reporting Croatia contributed less than 1% of emissions and fuel consumption to the EU-27 total. This lack of data is thus considered a minor distortion of the overall trend.

As indicated, reporting requirements were not identical before and after 2016, which is also considered a minor distortion of the trend.

Data sets uncertainty

Although reporting requirements began in 2004, it is possible that the data for the first reported period (2004-2006) contain some gaps.

Rationale uncertainty

No uncertainty has been specified.

Data sources and providers

Metadata

DPSIRTopicsTagsTemporal coverageGeographic coverage

TypologyUN SDGsUnit of measureFrequency of dissemination

References and footnotes

EEA, 2019, Greening the power sector: benefits of an ambitious implementation of Europe’s environment and climate policies, EEA Briefing, European Environment Agency.

^a^b
EC 2021, (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0550) accessed March 27, 2023.

^↵
EEA, 2022, 'National emissions reported to the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention) — European Environment Agency', (https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/national-emissions-reported-to-the-convention-on-long-range-transboundary-air-pollution-lrtap-convention-16) accessed November 18, 2022.

^↵
EU, 2010, Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control), OJ L 334, 17.12.2010, p. 17-119.

^↵