Source: Oscar Poss, Spectrum Colour Library
INTRODUCTION |
Economic development involving increased production and consumption has caused increased production of waste worldwide. According to the OECD, the total amount of waste produced in 1990 in OECD countries was 9 billion (thousand million) tonnes (OECD, 1991). Of those, 420 million tonnes were municipal wastes and 1.5 billion tonnes were industrial waste, including more than 300 million tonnes of hazardous waste. About 7 billion tonnes of waste were residues from energy production, agriculture, mining, demolition and sewage sludge.
Concerns over the environmental impacts of the increasing volume and toxicity of waste have emerged dramatically in the last two decades. Improper management of waste has caused numerous cases of contamination of soil and groundwater, and threats to the health of the exposed population. Existing disposal facilities are reaching saturation, and difficulties emerge in the siting of new facilities. Increased movement of waste to less developed countries is seen to threaten these countries. The World Conference on the Environment and Development has pointed out that the increasing production of waste poses significant threats for the environment and is no longer acceptable (UNCED, 1992).
To date, there is no realistic inventory of waste production, composition and disposal paths for Europe as a whole. Systematic data collection on waste is recent and usually coincides with the enactment and implementation of waste regulations. Waste statistics across countries are often not comparable due to diverging definitions, classification systems and scope (Box 15A). The need to harmonise classification systems at the international level is gaining major attention since countries have recognised the importance of coordinated actions to control waste movements and to reduce the potential environmental threats of improper waste management practices (Box 15B).
This chapter analyses present trends in waste production and management in Europe on the basis of the most up-to-date information provided by national authorities through a joint OECD/Eurostat survey (1993) and/or reported in national state-of-the-environment reports. It also assesses the potential threats to human health and the environment resulting from current waste management practice. In addition, current progress achieved by European countries in reducing waste and recycling materials through integrated processes is examined. The information gap and the quality of existing statistics are briefly discussed in order to assess the state of knowledge and to identify future information needs.
MATERIAL LIFE-CYCLE |
The nature of waste issues can better be understood by examining the material life-cycle from extraction to final disposal (Figure 15.1). Materials are transformed into waste as a result of a broad range of production and consumption processes (see Chapter 20). Residuals from transformation processes that are discharged directly into air or into water have been referred to in this report as emissions (see Chapter 14). Residuals which are further handled before being discarded are referred to as waste. Once generated, waste may be re-used (through in-plant processes), recycled (after being treated) or transferred to a treatment plant (to reduce its toxicity) or to an incineration plant (to reduce its volume). Non-recoverable materials are generally sent to a disposal facility. At each stage in the material life-cycle, various control options can be considered to reduce the amount and toxicity of waste materials. Each step in waste management has potential environmental impacts, as the various management methods imply various releases of pollutants into different environmental media (Table 15.1).
Sources of waste |
All human activities are potential sources of waste. Wastes can be classified according to their major sources, which include: municipal, industrial, agricultural, extraction, energy production, sewage sludge and dredged spoils. Figure 15.2 shows estimated totals of waste arising in five of these major source categories in the OECD European area (OECD, 1993a). Agricultural, mining, industrial and municipal activities are, in order of importance according to quantity, the major sources of waste in Europe. Industrial and mining wastes are generally more important when wastes are compared according to their potential environmental impacts.
The relative importance of the various sources of wastes varies between countries and according to their economic structure. This is evident from comparing the major sources of waste in European countries. Data from the 1993 Eurostat/OECD survey show that the relative contribution of industrial and municipal wastes to total waste arising in Western European countries is greater than that in Central and Eastern Europe. In most countries of Central and Eastern Europe, mining activities rank first, with an extremely high share of waste compared with other sources. Mining activities in Bulgaria and the former Czechoslovakia, for example, produce, respectively, five and ten times the amount of waste generated by the industrial sector (see Statistical Compendium). However, differences between countries should be regarded with caution since these may simply reflect differences in national definitions and classification systems.
Waste streams |
Waste can also be classified according to different waste streams. Figure 15.3 shows the share of paper, plastics, glass, metals and organic matter in municipal waste in selected European countries. Although the composition of municipal waste varies widely from country to country, some general patterns can be detected. Organic waste, for example, accounts for a large share of municipal waste in most European countries. Paper is still a major waste stream despite recycling efforts. Waste plastic is especially found in increased proportions in Western European countries.
Wastes from industrial processes include a wide range of materials which may have varied chemical composition and physical state. Depending on the different industrial sectors, they may contain varying proportions of organic and inorganic compounds. It is their heterogeneity which makes their treatment and disposal difficult. Major categories of industrial wastes which are considered hazardous include solvents, waste paint, waste containing heavy metals, acids, and oily waste (Figure 15.4). Waste from mining activities includes topsoil, rock and dirt and may occur as inert or mine tailings which are contaminated by metals and chemicals from the mining process. Large amounts of ash are often the product of energy generation processes.
Other waste streams of concern for their increased amount and toxicity are sewage sludge, agricultural, demolition and hospital waste. Sewage sludge from the treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater and dredged spoils from harbours and rivers generally concentrate heavy metals and synthetic organic compounds. Sewage sludge and agricultural manure are organic wastes with high contents of nutrients. In addition, waste from agricultural activity may contain high concentrations of pesticide residues. Demolition and construction waste, including asphalt road planings and concrete, steel, timber and cement, may also contain relevant concentrations of toxic substances such as asbestos. Hospital wastes contain contaminated materials and are generally required to be segregated from other municipal waste.
Specific regulations are generally adopted for radioactive wastes, and these are considered later in this chapter.
Management options |
During the last two decades, European countries have established various control systems for the management of waste, giving increased attention to waste prevention strategies. Since 1976, OECD countries have adopted a hierarchy of preferred options for waste management (see Chapter 36). Waste prevention is preferred to recycling; recycling is preferred to incineration; and disposal onto and into land is the least preferred option of the accepted methods of disposing of waste. More recently the EU has adopted a strategy for waste management in which primary emphasis is laid on waste prevention, recovery of materials and optimisation of final disposal (CEC, 1990) (Box 15C). However, despite the increasing emphasis on waste prevention, wastes have increased. Landfill and incineration, rather than recycling, are still the predominant practices in the management of waste.
On average, more than 60 per cent of municipal waste generated in Western Europe is currently disposed of into or onto land, about 19 per cent is incinerated, 4 per cent is composted and 3 per cent is subjected to mechanical sorting for recovery (Figure 15.5). From industrial wastes, more than 70 per cent of hazardous waste is still disposed of into or onto land, 8 per cent is incinerated and only about 10 per cent is recovered as secondary materials (Figure 15.6).
Environmental impacts |
The increased rate of waste generation in Europe means that production and consumption activities use increasing quantities of materials each year which are returned to the environment in a degraded form, potentially threatening the integrity of renewable and non-renewable resources (see Chapter 13). Furthermore, managing waste has a wide range of potential environmental impacts, since natural processes act to disperse pollutants and toxic substances throughout all environmental media (see Table 15.1). The nature and dimension of these impacts depend upon the amount and composition of waste streams as well as on the method adopted for disposal.
At disposal sites, waste materials may contaminate the soil and groundwater by the leaching of toxic substances, such as heavy metals and metalloids, nitrogen compounds, chlorinated compounds and other organics such as hydrocarbons from households and industrial residues. From organic materials, the leachate may be enriched by inorganic materials such as nitrates. These may cause severe pollution of drinking water sources and eutrophication of surface water in surrounding areas. Biodegradation of organic matter in landfills also generates toxic and hazardous gases. Methane, one of the main components of landfill gases, is explosive at concentrations of 5 to 15 per cent in air. Other gases, such as hydrogen sulphide, are toxic. Two important landfill gases (CO2 and methane) contribute to the greenhouse effect.
Incineration of solid waste contributes to the emission of heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium and lead, contained in consumer products (Table 15.2). In addition, organic compounds produced by the combustion process and known as products of incomplete combustion (PICs) are released into the atmosphere at incineration plants. Among these products are dioxins and furans known to be highly toxic. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), are other highly toxic substances which can be formed during combustion. Filter residues are constituted by ashes and slags with high concentrations of hazardous substances.
Although the concentration of contaminants in waste from different sources is unknown, some European countries have attempted to estimate the contribution of emissions to the air and water from the disposal and processing of waste. Figure 15.7 illustrates that a high percentage of the total emissions of dioxins, hydrochloric acid and mercury into the atmosphere in The Netherlands is caused by incineration plants. The average composition of leachate at a number of disposal sites in The Netherlands is illustrated in Table 15.3. It is clear, however, that specific considerations of potential emission pathways of waste management facilities should be incorporated into monitoring activities if environmental impacts of waste management practice in Europe are to be monitored and their adverse effects prevented.
WASTE PRODUCTION |
Given current national statistics on waste (See Box 15A), it is not possible to provide a figure of total waste produced in Europe. In most European countries, waste statistics are incomplete or inadequate. When available, data on waste are often not comparable due to different definition and classification systems. An estimate for total waste generation in 1990 in the OECD European area, excluding radioactive waste, is over 2000 million tonnes (Yakowitz, 1992). More recently, disaggregated figures for each sector were estimated (OECD, 1993). Of those, there were: 150 million tonnes of municipal wastes; 330 million tonnes of industrial wastes; 700 million tonnes of agricultural wastes; 360 million tonnes of mining wastes; and 27 million tonnes of energy production waste. In addition, there were 620 million tonnes of sewage sludge, 259 million tonnes of construction waste and 46 million tonnes of dredge spoil.
Municipal waste |
Municipal wastes in Europe have increased markedly over recent decades. According to a preliminary estimate based on data from 33 countries, the total amount of municipal waste produced in European countries is of the order of 250 million tonnes. In the OECD European area, the production of municipal waste between 1975 and 1990 increased by about 30 per cent (Figure 15.8), with differences in growth rates between countries (Figure 15.9). The growth rate increased particularly in the five years up to 1990. The average rate of increase of municipal waste was 3 per cent per year between 1985 and 1990, compared with about 1 per cent per year between 1980 and 1985.
Municipal waste production per capita in European countries ranges between 150 and 600 kg per year (Figure 15.10). Western European countries generate more than 1 kg of municipal waste per day per person, which is higher than the amount of waste produced per capita in most Central and Eastern European countries. Comparing waste production in OECD countries, the level of municipal waste production appears to be correlated to the level of industrialisation and the level of income (Figure 15.11).
Map 15.1 shows the regional allocation of municipal waste produced per square kilometre. The highest density levels of waste generation occur in the most densely populated areas in Western Europe. In these areas it is increasingly difficult to provide the necessary treatment and disposal capacity for meeting good practices and safe standards of waste management.
Industrial waste |
OECD Europe is estimated to have generated, in 1990, nearly 330 million tonnes of industrial waste. Between 1985 and 1990, industrial wastes in these countries increased on average at an annual rate of 3 per cent, that is at a rate of about 9 million tonnes per year. In Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, it is estimated that 520 million tonnes of industrial wastes were generated per year. This could increase rapidly in the next few years if these countries increase their industrial output. The most up-to-date figures of industrial waste production are given in Figure 15.12.
Manufacturing is, however, only one part of a wide range of activities involved in industrial production. The extraction of raw materials and energy production are also important sources of waste and, particularly in Central and Eastern European countries, the cause of major problems. A significant proportion of industrial waste and extraction waste is regarded as hazardous waste.
Hazardous waste |
Statistics on hazardous waste are still incomplete, and existing data are particularly unreliable (see Box 15A).
Hazardous liquid chemical waste |
Furthermore, the definition of hazardous waste varies between countries, which implies that cross-comparisons are misleading. In general, waste containing metallic compounds, halogenated solvents, acids, asbestos, organo-halogen compounds, organophosphate compounds, cyanides or phenols is regarded as hazardous waste.
On the basis of official national statistics, OECD estimates that worldwide annual production of hazardous waste is about 16 per cent of the total industrial waste (338 million tonnes out of 2100 million tonnes). In the OECD European area, the estimate for hazardous waste ranges between 30 and 45 million tonnes per year. In addition, Central and Eastern Europe are estimated to generate annually about six million tonnes of hazardous waste. A further 25 to 30 million tonnes of hazardous waste are estimated to be produced each year in the former USSR.
Figure 15.13 gives an overview of total hazardous waste production in selected European countries. Hazardous waste production measured according to national definitions shows a large variation between countries, which reflects, in most cases, the relevant difference in these definitions. Indeed, countries that report high levels of hazardous waste are also those countries with more inclusive lists of waste regarded as hazardous. Differences across countries can be examined by using the core list of hazardous waste. The difference is even greater when comparing Western and Central and Eastern European production of hazardous waste per unit of GDP (Figure 15.14).
Household wastes commonly include hazardous itmes, such as batteries, oils, paints, resins, and out-of-date medicines, sometimes defined as small chemical waste. Consumer products containing hazardous substances are summarised in Box 15D. Although the importance of this source is increasing, reliable data are extremely difficult to obtain. In The Netherlands, household chemical wastes are estimated to be 70 per cent (41 thousand tonnes) of the small chemical waste produced in one year. Household hazardous wastes are especially important because they are ultimately disposed of as municipal waste without the same precautions required for hazardous waste. The operation and regulation of facilities managing such waste consequently need to take this fully into account. The presence of hazardous items in municipal waste indeed limits the opportunities for municipal waste recycling since they may contaminate recoverable materials with toxic substances. Some countries are segregating such waste at source.
Agricultural waste |
Agricultural waste consists of crop residues, animal manure, animal carcasses, agrochemical residues and containers. Such waste accounts for more than one third of the waste produced in Western European countries. Data available for Central and Eastern European countries show that residuals from agricultural activities constitute a significant share of waste generated in these countries as well. The importance and composition of agricultural wastes vary across countries according to agricultural systems (see Chapter 22).
Most agricultural residues are organic and biodegradable and hence should be suitable to conversion by biological, chemical and physical processes into energy, animal feed or organic fertiliser. However, problems for their management arise from their occurrence in large volumes and high concentrations, and as a result of the increased use of chemicals in agriculture. In general, farm crops produce significant amounts of residues. Intensification of agriculture and livestock farming is the cause of increased pressure on the environment due to increased quantities and concentration of such residues. Opportunities for recycling are still not fully exploited.
WASTE MANAGEMENT |
In Europe most waste is disposed of in landfills, despite the accepted principle that waste disposal in or on land should be considered as one of the least desirable options. However, the extent of the use of landfill varies between countries (see Chapter 36). In some countries, which have reached saturation of landfill capacity or have imposed restrictions on the landfill of certain waste (Austria, Denmark, Germany and The Netherlands), an increasing proportion is now incinerated or submitted to other treatment processes. In addition, increasing concerns for the emissions of toxic substances from incineration plants have led countries such as Germany and The Netherlands to adopt new programmes for waste prevention and recycling.
Recycling |
Most waste streams contain significant amounts of valuable materials which can be recovered and re-used in production processes or other useful applications.
Plastic bottles awaiting recycling |
Re-use and recycling activities have the advantage of reducing the demand for raw materials and for energy while minimising the impact of waste disposal. An attempt to estimate the potential saving in energy, water use, mining waste and emissions to air and water that can be achieved when specific materials are recycled is presented in Table 15.4.
At present, the total amount of waste material recovered in Europe is not known. Based on OECD data, it is possible to estimate that between 30 and 40 per cent of municipal waste produced in OECD European countries is submitted to operations leading to recovery of material or energy. Recovery of materials from municipal waste substantially increased between 1975 and 1985, but remained constant between 1985 and 1990 (Yakowitz, 1992).
The range of different recycling efforts varies enormously between countries (Figures 15.15 and 15.16). Among the major flows of recovered materials are paper and cardboard (20 to 60 per cent), aluminium (about 30 per cent) and glass (8 to 63 per cent). In addition, between 20 and 25 per cent of the organic fraction of municipal waste is incinerated to recover energy (Yakowitz, 1992).
Incineration |
In OECD Europe, the average rate of incineration of municipal waste (19 per cent) and of hazardous waste (8 per cent) remained constant between 1985 and 1990. In Central and Eastern European countries the range of incineration rates is much lower.
A few Northern (Norway and Sweden) and Western (Denmark, France, Germany and Switzerland) European countries already rely on a significant incineration capacity. Several countries such as The Netherlands, Belgium, the UK, Italy and Switzerland have planned to increase their capacity to meet waste treatment needs. However, increasing difficulties have been encountered by public agencies in siting new incineration plants, since the significant contribution of these plants to the total emissions of toxic substances to the atmosphere has become evident. Public opposition to the siting of new facilities, and increased capital and operating costs due to higher environmental standards, have prevented the expansion of incineration capacity. On the other hand, the current capacity of European countries for incineration is expected to reach saturation in the next few years (Table 15.5).
Composting |
In a number of European countries, some of the organic fraction of municipal waste is composted. The share of composting is extremely limited except for a few countries such as Spain, Portugal, Denmark and France, where composting reaches respectively 21, 10, 9 and 6 per cent of municipal waste collected. A small contribution is also found in The Netherlands, Germany and Italy. Although composting played an important role in the past, difficulties in finding a market for compost products have kept this option at a fairly modest level during the last two decades. Other ways of utilising organic waste include the production of biogas to recover energy from agriculture residue. This is, however, extremely limited in Europe.
Landfill |
Disposal of waste on land is still the major disposal route in Europe. On average, more than 60 per cent of municipal waste and about 70 per cent of hazardous waste was delivered to landfill sites in OECD European countries in 1989 (Table 15.6). However, there are major variations between countries. In the UK, 75 per cent of municipal waste is landfilled; in Norway it is 70 per cent. The percentages of waste sent to landfill in Sweden and Switzerland are, respectively, 30 per cent and 10 per cent.
WASTE MOVEMENTS |
Transfrontier movements of hazardous waste have also increased. More than 2 million tonnes of hazardous waste move each year across national frontiers in the OECD European area (Table 15.7). The patterns of hazardous waste movements show two clear directions: from North to South and from West to East. In addition, transfrontier movements of hazardous waste across Western European countries are seen to match the degree of stringency of regulations adopted by those countries for the management of hazardous waste. Map 15.2 gives an overview of major flows of hazardous waste between European countries. These include waste destined both to final disposal and to recovery. A number of examples of disputed transfrontier movements of wastes are given in Box 15E. In all these cases, the types of wastes exported were highly hazardous.
NorthSouth |
Europe exports legally about 120 000 tonnes of hazardous waste to developing countries. Increasing evidence that the magnitude of these transfrontier movements is far larger than recorded has emerged in recent years from the detection of illegal flows of hazardous waste from northern to southern countries. The improper management of these wastes in countries with less adequate technologies and fewer measures for their control poses risks for health and the environment and threaten development in southern countries.
WestEast |
Another major route of hazardous waste movement is from Western to Eastern European countries. Although the records of these movements are incomplete and rarely consistent, a few examples are sufficient to understand the magnitude of such a flow.
In 1988 more than 1 million tonnes of hazardous waste were exported from Western Europe to East Germany (the former DDR). According to the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, 685 000 tonnes of hazardous waste (65 per cent of the total waste exported) were exported in 1988 from West to East Germany. Other exporter countries included Austria (50 000 tonnes), Italy (50 000 tonnes), The Netherlands (35 000 tonnes) and Switzerland (4000 tonnes). Other examples of export from Western to Eastern European countries are polychlorinated dibenzo-furan exported from Austria to the former Czechoslovakia (4000 tonnes) and to the former USSR (1500 tonnes) to be recovered.
Within Western Europe |
Movements of hazardous wastes between Western European countries are seen to parallel the patterns of regulations. Waste moves from countries which have adopted and enforced stringent standards, or impose higher costs for the management of such waste, to less regulated countries or those which have lower costs. The total amount of waste exported from West Germany in 1988 reached 1 058 100 tonnes, that is, more than 20 per cent of the annual hazardous waste produced. In addition to East Germany, destination countries included Belgium (128 400 tonnes), France (197 500 tonnes), the UK (36 200 tonnes), The Netherlands (11 400 tonnes) and Switzerland (300 tonnes).
The large increase of waste imports into the UK from 1980 to 1988 (Figure 15.17) was due to the increasing stringency of regulations in continental Europe and North America. Waste imports increased from 5000 tonnes in 1983 to 183 000 tonnes in 198687. Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP) of the UK estimates that 80 000 tonnes of 'special waste' were imported in 1987. This figure dropped to 40 000 tonnes of imported hazardous waste in 1988 after the implementation of the EC Directive on transfrontier movement of hazardous waste.
The amount of waste imported into France (250 000 tonnes per year) is extremely high; and according to the Belgian Ministry of Health and Environment the amount of waste imported into Belgium per month in 1989 was 54 700 tonnes.
CLOSING MATERIAL CYCLES |
Waste prevention has been recognised worldwide as a priority objective to reduce the pressure on the environment from production and consumption processes. Reducing the amount of emissions and waste can be achieved by closing the cycle of materials in the production and consumption processes. Closing material cycles has the advantage of both reducing the pressure on the stock of natural resources and reducing the environmental impact of waste and emissions.
In principle, product substitution and modification of manufacturing processes could help avoid or minimise the production of waste. Furthermore, re-use and recycling of materials contributes to waste avoidance. In practice, achieving waste prevention is a complex task which requires different strategies depending on each specific waste stream, including the redesigning of processes.
Although the magnitude of the various waste streams varies across European countries, it is possible to identify waste streams that require specific consideration for reduction based on their increasing importance and potential impact on the environment. Four examples are plastic waste, packaging waste, chlorinated solvents and used tyres.
Plastic waste |
The production and consumption of plastics have increased enormously in the last 30 years. Plastic materials have replaced others such as metal, wood and glass in many sectors. Different types of plastics and their major uses are described in Box 15F. Although plastic wastes have increased in all sectors of economic activity, the increased share of plastic in household waste is the most evident example of this trend. In most Western European countries, the plastic component of household waste has increased eight-fold since the 1960s. In Central and Eastern Europe, plastic is now increasingly replacing other materials, raising the share of plastic waste, and this trend is expected to continue in the near future.
In Western Europe, more than one third of all plastic is used for packaging (Figure 15.18). PET bottles, PVC packaging and the PE carrier bags account for the most significant part of plastic consumption. These products have a shorter life than consumer goods, which explains the exponential growth in waste plastic in a short time. Other important sources of plastic waste are building construction (19 per cent), transport (7 per cent) and the electrical engineering industry (7 per cent).
The environmental impacts of disposing of plastic waste concern both landfill and incineration processes. Two major problems of landfilling plastic waste are their non-degradability and the space requirements. Chlorinated polymers, particularly PVC, are one of the principal sources of hydrochloric acid emissions from incineration plants and are considered responsible for the formation of dioxins. The contamination of fly ash and slag from incineration with heavy metals is also ascribed to the metal content of plastic waste.
Several options for reducing the impact of plastic waste are available. On a qualitative level, this would imply cutting down the content of toxic substances in plastics as well as replacing PVC with other plastics. For product design, the options include reducing the total amount of packaging, the replacement of plastics with other materials and the design of products with an extended life-cycle.
Packaging waste |
The increasing portion of plastic and cardboard in municipal waste is due to the packaging of consumer products. In Northern and Western European countries, it has been estimated that between 30 and 35 per cent of the mass of total municipal waste and 50 per cent of its volume is due to packaging material. OECD Europe produces nearly 45 million tonnes of packaging waste per year with a recovery rate ranging between 10 and 15 per cent. The proportion of packaging material in municipal waste in Central and Eastern Europe is lower, but is expected to rise as a consequence of introducing Western consumer products (OECD, 1992).
The pressure of packaging waste on the environment is due to both the environmental impacts of disposing of a significant proportion of plastic materials and the consumption of natural resources. The environmental impacts of disposing of packaging materials are similar to those mentioned above for plastic waste, due to the increased component of plastic in the packaging waste. The relative importance attributed to packaging as a source of environmental impacts is due to the short life of packaging products, their potential for exponential increase in the short term and their frequent dumping in improper sites.
Even if in Europe there is no systematic inventory of packaging waste, some countries have started to monitor the amount of various forms of packaging (eg, one-way beverage containers) and composition (eg, plastic content). In Germany, for example, between 1970 and 1988, the overall use of one-way packaging containers increased significantly, while the proportion of returnable containers fell from 90 per cent to 74 per cent. In The Netherlands it has been estimated that a large portion of paper and cardboard for packaging has been replaced with plastics. Packaging waste is also considered to contribute more than 10 per cent to the total household small chemical waste produced each year.
Several options are being considered to reduce the amount and potential threat of packaging waste. The most obvious is to reduce the use of packaging and packaging materials. A second option is the replacement of certain materials with others which have less environmental impact. Recycling and recovery of the various packaging components is the focus of most of the current programmes aimed at reducing the total amount of packaging waste.
Several European countries have undertaken actions to reduce the quantity of packaging and packaging waste and to recover packaging material. In The Netherlands, for example, a 'packaging covenant' between the Dutch government and the packaging industry sets a reduction target for the year 2000 for packaging newly put on the market to 10 per cent below the level of packaging in 1986.
One of the most significant initiatives for recycling packaging waste has been taken by Germany to cut substantially the amount of packaging waste per unit of product, and requires industries to collect packaging materials for recycling. The three-stage scheme concerns three categories of packaging: transport packaging (eg, pallets for loading lorries), secondary packaging (eg, cardboard boxes) and sales packaging (eg, plastic layers around the products). Since April 1992, German industries are required to accept secondary packaging at the point of sale. In order to cover the cost of the scheme, a consortium of more than 3000 companies has been created to collect packaging materials from consumers. The eligible packaging products for the system are identified by a green dot which entails a fee of up to 0.1 ECU per package. A total of one billion ECU per year is expected to be generated by this fee in order to operate the scheme. The use of packaging in Germany has dropped by 3.1 per cent between 1992 and 1993 as a result of implementing this policy. However, the system has collected more material than can be re-used or recycled in the country, causing impacts on the markets for these materials.
At the EU level, a Directive on packaging for liquid food was adopted in 1985 (85/339/EEC). More recently, a proposal for a new Directive has been advanced by the European Commission aiming at harmonising national measures concerning the management of all packaging and packaging waste. The Directive's first priority is prevention of packaging-waste generation. Additional principles are re-use, recycling and recovering packaging waste and reducing its disposal.
Chlorinated solvents |
Production and consumption of chlorinated organic compounds have increased in the last two decades because of their attractive properties in several industrial applications, notably as solvents. Chlorinated solvents are used in metal cleaning and degreasing, dry-cleaning, paint stripping and as an intermediate in chemical production. The many chlorinated compounds used as solvents include:
In EU countries, it is estimated that between 600 000 and 800 000 tonnes of chlorinated solvents were used in 1989 (CEC, 1992). Of those, MC accounted for the largest proportion (160 000 tonnes), followed by TRI, PER, 1,1,1-T (each 130 000 tonnes), CFC-113 (44 500 tonnes), and CFC-11 (5500 tonnes).
Although the largest portion of chlorinated solvents emissions is released into air during their use, a part of their residue is left as waste. Existing statistics in Europe are not comparable, due to different definitions of chlorinated/halogenated solvents, and therefore the total amount of chlorinated waste at the European level is unknown. In EU countries, 700 000 tonnes per year of waste containing chlorinated solvents are estimated to be produced. The chlorinated solvents content of such waste is estimated to be approximately 200 000 tonnes. It is also estimated that approximately 90 000 tonnes out of 150 000 tonnes of chlorinated solvents in waste streams are recycled. However, recycling and useful applications of such waste are still considered too limited compared with the potentials that they offer.
Chlorinated solvents pose threats to human health and the environment in several ways. Exposure to chlorinated solvents in high concentrations and over long periods of time is toxic and is suspected as a cause of carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic effects.
Exposure to chlorinated solvents may occur through their emission into the air (the main pathway for chlorinated products) but also through supplies of drinking water. In addition, migration of solvents through environmental media may affect the environment at various levels of the biological system. A number of these substances also have global impacts. For example, 1,1,1,-T, CFC-11 and CFC-13 are particularly important because they play an important role in stratospheric ozone depletion and as greenhouse gases. The use of these substances will be phased out by the Montreal Protocol by 2005 and in EU countries by the year 1995.
The reduction of waste containing chlorinated solvents may be achieved in several ways, including changing production processes or substituting certain solvents with other substances. Such waste may also be reduced by better use and in-house recovery of chlorinated solvents. There are several examples in the metal and printing industries where chemical solvent-based processes have been replaced with water-based ones. Examples of successful substitution of chlorinated solvents by alkaline solutions for degreasing in the metal industry are reported in several European countries, such as Denmark, Sweden and The Netherlands, where industries were able to cut costs at the same time (UNEP/IEO Cleaner Production Working Group on Halogenated Solvents).
Used tyres |
Waste tyres are the most significant source of waste rubber products in terms of volume and importance. They are generated both when car tyres are replaced by new tyres, and when vehicles are scrapped. Total volume of used tyres released in the EU in tonnes per annum has been estimated at 1 955 000 tonnes on the basis of available figures for Member States. In the EU, almost half of the total waste tyres (46 per cent) is disposed of by landfill. One third (31 per cent) is submitted to processes leading to recovery of materials or energy, and about 23 per cent is re-used as retreaded tyres.
The most important factors affecting future development of car tyres are car ownership, car use, and the average life of car tyres. According to current trends in car ownership and use (see Chapter 21), the number of waste tyres is likely to increase in the next decade. The world market for tyres is forecast to grow at 1.4 per cent for cars and 2.2 per cent for commercial vehicles. On the other hand, the average life of passenger car tyres, as far as wear is concerned, has increased by 5 per cent over the last ten years.
The disposal of waste tyres poses increasing environmental concerns. Tyres are made from natural rubber (truck tyres) or artificial rubber (car tyres). Depending on their design and application, tyres vary in size and total weight. On average, the weight of a car tyre is 7 kg. Average composition includes rubber hydrocarbon (48 per cent), carbon black (22 per cent), steel (15 per cent), textile (5 per cent), zinc oxide (1.2 per cent) and sulphur (1 per cent). Once treated with sulphur, they become immune to breakdown from bacteria so that, when disposed of in landfills, they remain intact for decades. If they are not stored in proper conditions they can pose a fire risk. Major fire episodes may last for a long time, affecting the quality of air, surface waters and wildlife.
When tyres are burned to recover energy for steam production, or as supplementary fuel in cement kilns, air pollutants are emitted. Although scrubbers remove zinc oxide and 90 per cent of SO2, incineration still produces 24 grams of CO2 per million joules. This is the same amount emitted by a coal-fired plant. The energy content is estimated at approximately 63 kJ per tyre. After incineration in a grate furnace fly ash (mostly zinc oxide) makes up approximately 4.5 per cent of the total residuals, and slag (mostly iron) between 13 and 18 per cent.
Opportunities for prevention are linked mainly to the reduction of road transport and particularly to the use of the car. Indeed, extending the life of car tyres, which is the other preventative option, is limited for safety reasons. Retreading is a method of re-using tyres for their original application. It has the advantage of reducing the quantity of tyres being disposed of, and lowering the demand for new tyres. Useful applications for whole tyres or rubber range from engineering works (coastal protection, highway structures, erosion barriers) to insulation of building foundations and sound-absorbing walls.
Processing options include incineration and pyrolysis (chemical breakdown on heating). Burning waste tyres as a fuel in cement kilns or for energy or steam production are considered relatively clean options compared with other recycling processes. However, there are differing opinions as to the efficiency of energy production processes when compared with fossil fuel power plants. Useful products can also be obtained with pyrolysis, such as steel, carbon black, oil and gas. However, the variability of product quality and high capital costs are major constraints for the application of pyrolysis technology.
CONTAMINATED WASTE SITES |
Increasing concern has emerged during the last decade over the threat to the environment posed by contaminated sites originating from the poor management of hazardous waste in the past, including poorly designed disposal sites. Several thousand contaminated sites are reported by national governments in Europe. Old hazardous waste sites are a potential threat for soil and groundwater and may pose health risks for the exposed population. Although it is extremely difficult to quantify the problem, the cost of damage from improper waste management practices in Europe is estimated to be extremely high.
Contaminated sites |
At present, the number of contaminated sites from old waste disposal practices in Europe is unknown. The type, amount and potential risks of toxic substances present at these sites are even more difficult to determine. Attempts to estimate the number of potentially contaminated sites have been made in some European countries. A tentative list of registered contaminated sites is presented in Chapter 7. National environmental agencies are aware that reported figures underestimate the actual level of contamination from past hazardous waste practices.
Cost of clean-up |
Estimating the cost of clean-up is extremely difficult since it varies enormously from site to site and depends upon the substances that are found at each site. A very rough estimate indicates that about ECU 1 to 1.5 billion per year are currently spent in Europe for the clean-up of such sites. National estimates include: DM 22 billion for Germany, more than HFL 3 billion for The Netherlands, and at least DKR 400 million for Denmark. In the USA, where legislation has been enacted since 1986, the estimate ranges from $20 to $100 billion.
Clean-up priority sites |
Since costs of clean-up are extremely high, attempts at developing national lists of priority clean-up actions are being undertaken by several European countries on the basis of a preliminary assessment of identified sites. However, only a few countries have established programmes to produce systematic inventories of contaminated sites and their potential risks. Because of the enormous variability of conditions, estimates are very inaccurate. Potential risks of contamination from old hazardous waste sites vary according to the amount and type of substances present at different sites and according to the level of vulnerability of the soil and groundwater.
Building inventories of sites and establishing monitoring networks is expensive, sometimes prohibitively so. This is particularly the case in Central and Eastern Europe, where there is a need and requirement for cooperative efforts to provide technical and economic resources to assess the current threats of past waste management practices.
RADIOACTIVE WASTE |
The impact of radioactive waste on the environment and human health depends on the type of radiation emitted, the period of radioactive decay, the waste form, and the radioactive waste management activity being considered.
Classifications therefore relate to the factors mentioned above:
Each country has its own classification(s) for radioactive waste set up by the regulatory authorities. However, these classifications are very similar and generally aim at answering acceptance criteria for future disposal. For safety reasons, long-lived and high-level waste are not disposed of on the surface or near surface facilities; according to the present state of technology they are planned to be disposed of in deep underground repositories (so called 'geological disposal'). All radioactive waste must be solid or solidified in an appropriate long-lasting matrix before disposal.
Detailed data are available in Western European countries on most types of radioactive waste produced by civil activities. The amount of waste handled at military sites is usually not available.
A recent report (CEC, 1993) gives an overview of radioactive waste management in the Member States of the European Union. The report provides data on past and present waste production and a forecast for the year 2010. For an operational electronuclear capacity of nearly 110 GWe, the total production rate of conditioned low-level, medium-level and alpha waste is estimated at present to be about 80 000 m3/year (corresponding weight is roughly 160 000 tonnes of heavy metal (HM)) for the EU as whole. In addition some 3400 tonnes (HM) of spent nuclear fuel and 150 m3 of highly radioactive vitrified waste from spent fuel reprocessing are produced annually.
Under conservative assumptions, concerning the future of the electronuclear programmes, it is predicted that annual waste production will remain approximately the same until the year 2000. Production will increase significantly after 2000 due to new waste arisings resulting from the decommissioning of obsolete nuclear plants.
The production of radioactive waste outside of the nuclear industry is linked with the level of development of the country. Within the EU, a figure of some 10 m3 per million inhabitants per annum may be deduced.
Data from Central and Eastern Europe are very limited, due notably to the fact that information on civil nuclear operations was until recently restricted under military secrecy rules. In the former USSR wastes were classified as:
The first category has been managed by a network of 35 regional disposal centres. The most important, RADON, near Moscow receives some 3000 m3/year, and 60 000 m3 have already been disposed of. Part of the reactor wastes are stored on site (after concentration of the liquid waste); 1991 estimates for the former USSR were of some 150 000 m3 of liquid waste and 100 000 m3 of untreated solid waste under storage. A major part of the liquid waste has apparently been released into lakes or rivers, or injected under pressure into the ground (see Chapters 16 and 18).
In addition, Ukraine has to face the special problem of the waste resulting from the Chernobyl accident (see Box 18E), the overall volume of which might be evaluated at 1 million m3.
A special mention should be made of the waste materials produced by uranium milling activities associated with uranium mining. These waste materials, called tailings, result from the processing of uranium ores. Tailings contain natural radioisotopes resulting from the decay chain of uranium-238 and notably radon gas. As in any other mining activities, the disposal and conditioning of mill tailings should be part of an integrated process of the rehabilitation of the site. Uranium mining and milling has been relatively modest in the EU (and limited to France, Germany, Portugal and Spain); however, they produce large quantities of waste materials. In Central and Eastern Europe these activities are situated in Ukraine and the Russian Federation.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS |
A rigorous pan-European assessment of environmental impacts caused by waste generation and disposal requires much more complete and reliable information on the various aspects of waste (including the amount of waste by types, and the nature and toxicity of substances, as well as the methods used for disposal). In addition, if waste minimisation policies are to succeed, it is necessary to know the various activities and processes through which wastes are generated. However, in most European countries, waste statistics are incomplete or inadequate. In addition, comparing waste statistics across countries is made extremely difficult because of different definitions and classification systems.
With the data that are available, the following conclusions can be drawn:
Current patterns in the production and management of waste are not likely to change in the short term. The growth of economic activities as a result of European economic integration and economic restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe is likely to lead to a significant increase in the overall generation of waste. Waste issues will be a dominant concern for Europe's environment in the next decades, if reduction targets and safe management standards are not achieved in all countries.