Piazza San Marco, Venice

Source: G Arici, Grazia Neri, Milan


INTRODUCTION

In terms of employment, contribution to GDP, and as a growing item of consumer demand, tourism and recreation together have become one of the most important social and economic activities in Europe. These activities bring income and jobs, increased understanding of other cultures, preservation of cultural and natural heritage and investment in infrastructure, which in turn brings social and cultural benefits. On the other hand, some forms of tourism, and some recreational activities, can cause destruction of habitats, degradation of landscapes and competition for scarce resources and services, such as land, freshwater, energy and sewage treatment. In addition, host populations may suffer the loss of their traditions and become overdependent on tourism incomes.

These problems are exacerbated by the concentration of tourist activity in relatively short holiday seasons and in specific areas, often comparatively small, which are also subject to environmental pressures from other economic activities such as agriculture, industrial development, fishing and growing resident populations.

More than other human activities, tourism and recreation depend on the quality of the natural and cultural environment for their continued success. However, as countries or particular resort areas become attractive destinations for tourism and recreation, unmanaged environmental impacts may undermine future earnings. For example, it has been estimated that, in 1990, the algal plague in the Adriatic Sea cost an estimated ECU 1.5 billion in lost revenue from tourism and fishing (CEC, 1991). Thus, tourism and recreation can affect the natural environment to such an extent that they can threaten their own existence. This is particularly crucial in Central and Eastern European countries where the temptation might be to develop unsustainable tourism as a 'quick fix' to assist with economic recovery. Thus, like agriculture and forestry and fishing, tourism and recreation both affect, and are affected by, the environment.

The practice of the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) to use country groupings (Central and Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western Europe and the East Mediterranean) is adopted in this chapter (see Box 25A). The term 'tourism', as used by the WTO, includes all travel by people to destinations outside the place they normally live, for any purpose (including pleasure, professional, educational, health or other), but excluding excursionists (ie, those visiting for less than 24 hours). However, where data are available, this chapter also covers recreation and sporting tourism in the domestic market and includes, for instance, day-trip skiers, visitors to national parks, the countryside, historic sites or theme parks, and other activities that involve large but inadequately documented flows of people having potentially significant impacts on the environment. Box 25A describes the sources of available data on tourism and the environment.

In terms of arrivals, worldwide tourism almost tripled between 1970 and 1992, growing at nearly 5 per cent each year, whereas revenue from tourism increased almost sixteen-fold, and it is currently the third most important economic international export earner in the world, surpassed only by oil and motor vehicles (WTO/UNCTAD data in WTO, 1993a). The majority of the Northern European countries are net spenders on tourism, but in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Spain, Portugal, Greece and Turkey, as well as some other countries such as Ireland, tourism makes a major contribution to the national economy. Thus in 1990 for the EU, tourism receipts as a contribution to GDP was 5.5 per cent, ranging from 1.3 per cent in The Netherlands to 9.4 per cent in Spain (CEC, DG XI, elaboration (1993) of WTO and Eurostat data). Few data are currently available on the contribution of tourism to the economy in Central and Eastern Europe. In Hungary, however, tourism accounted for about 3 per cent of GDP in 1992 (National Bank of Hungary, 1992).

According to the WTO, the number of international tourist arrivals to Europe increased from 190 million in 1980 to 288 million by 1992 (accounting for about 60 per cent of world tourism arrivals): an average annual growth rate of just over 3.5 per cent (Figure 25.1).

Figure 25.2 shows the variation in international tourist arrivals between different parts of Europe, with Central and Eastern Europe accounting for about 18 per cent (WTO, 1993a).

KEY CONCEPTS: SUSTAINABLE TOURISM, INDICATORS AND CARRYING CAPACITIES

The need for sustainable tourism has been recognised at the international level in documents such as Agenda 21 and in the European Commission's Programme 'Towards Sustainability' (UNCED, 1992; CEC, 1993). Currently, there is no single accepted definition of sustainable tourism. However, a number of key elements might nevertheless be envisaged in its formulation (ERM and StfT, 1993):

It has been suggested that it is necessary to balance five major elements to achieve sustainable tourism, without any single one becoming dominant: economic, tourist satisfaction, social, cultural and environmental (Müller, 1993, in ERM and StfT, 1993). This implies a need for indicators to measure all these different aspects in order to highlight potential areas of concern and priorities for action (see Box 25B). Some principles of sustainable tourism are provided at the end of this chapter (Box 25G).

Indicators can be used to help identify problem or key impact areas, or can be combined to give some idea of carrying capacity (the number of tourists that an ecosystem can support indefinitely without running down the resource base). Ideally, carrying capacity should be assessed at three levels (ERM and StfT, 1993):

  1. Environmental/physical capacity: the degree to which an ecosystem, habitat or landscape can accommodate the various impacts of tourism and its associated infrastructure without damage being caused. It should also take account of seasonal variation.
  2. Cultural and social capacity: the level beyond which tourism developments and visitor numbers adversely affect local communities and their ways of life, and any local identity is lost.
  3. Psychological capacity: the level of tourism development or number of visitors compatible with the type of cultural/environmental experience that the visitors are seeking in relation to the particular destination. This depends on the type of tourism activity, and the expectations and actual experience that they have.

Attempts have been made in the literature to calculate these various carrying capacities for specific sites. However, as such analysis requires extensive data and local knowledge, it is not possible to include such material in this chapter. Indeed, the development of indicators and attempts to devise carrying capacities for different sites are long-term goals to achieve sustainable tourism. Currently, such tools are in their infancy in terms of conceptual development. Thus, policy makers concerned with the environmental impacts of tourism and leisure are guided mainly by practical experience and political choices.

ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF TOURISM AND RECREATION

Environmental impacts are experienced on several scales. At the Blocal level, host communities suffer competition for scarce resources (particularly freshwater and land), air and water pollution, noise (eg, from excessive traffic), and environmental incidents such as avalanches. At the regional level, impacts may include loss of habitats and biodiversity, and air and water pollution. At the global level, emissions from road traffic and deforestation of large areas may contribute to climate change.

Since impacts are so largely dependent on the specific setting and type and scale of activity, six different settings for tourism and recreation, ranging from natural areas to completely built environments, are described in this chapter. This classification is used for indicative purposes only, and clearly there are overlaps in many cases. In each setting, case studies are used to provide examples of the range of impacts. Tourism and recreation vary from other human activities in that, being related to increased numbers of people present, existing pressures are generally exacerbated rather than new ones initiated. For these reasons, an overview table of significant environmental impacts is not presented for tourism.

National parks and protected areas

In Europe, a total of 2900 nationally protected areas cover 8.5 million km2 (areas over 10 km2 in IUCN management categories I to VI, here including sites in the former USSR and Turkey) (WCMC, personal communication,1994). Management categories, such as those devised by IUCN (see Chapter 9, for more details), can be designed and implemented to meet specific management objectives. Viewed in this way, conservation categories can become tools towards sustainable development (IUCN, 1990). Therefore, for example, in scientific reserves (IUCN category I) tourism and public access are generally forbidden. In categories II (national parks) and V (protected landscape or seascape), on the other hand, tourists are allowed access. However, the role that national parks play in tourism and recreation differs somewhat between countries.

Tourism in protected areas has become increasingly popular in recent years. For instance, in the UK, 103 million visitor days are spent in national parks each year, equivalent to almost two days per person per year (FNNPE, 1993). Table 25.1 shows the popularity of selected destinations in IUCN categories II and V. Case studies indicate that the number of visitors, particularly to parks in Central and Eastern Europe, are increasing (Council of Europe, 1992; FNNPE, 1993).

National parks and protected areas are by their nature vulnerable to environmental degradation, and require careful environmental management. Some examples of environmental impact are provided in Box 25C. Problems are greatest in areas closest to urban centres and where arrivals are mainly by private car. However, increased tourism and recreation may also contribute to improved resource management, as a result of higher incomes for both parks and local people, and tourist interest in flora and fauna may help to safeguard biodiversity. For instance, in Majorca, 85 areas, representing 35 per cent of the land area, have been classified as protected areas since 1991 (Balearics Tourism Authority, 1992). This pattern is being observed elsewhere in Europe. Giving adequate levels of protection, the role of protected areas in tourism and recreation could be enhanced in the future. Guidelines are now being established for sustainable tourism in national parks and protected areas to supplement the already existing IUCN classification (WTO/UNEP, 1992).

Rural zones

Rural zones are popular tourist destinations throughout Europe. Many of the most attractive are described in Chapter 8. The most recent comprehensive survey of EU tourists in 1986 (European Omnibus Survey, 1987) suggested that, for their main holidays, 25 per cent of EU citizens prefer to visit the countryside. The types of impacts in rural areas are similar to those in protected areas, although they can affect wider areas, particularly so for IUCN category V areas (protected landscape or seascape).

Rural tourism in easily accessible areas is also popular in Central and Eastern Europe, with, for instance, the Plitvice Lakes area in Croatia attracting over 1 million visitors each year (Cambridge Economic Consultants, 1993). Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, countryside tourism has been sponsored by workplaces and trade unions. In Poland, for example, rural tourism has been popular for many years, as many urban dwellers still have relatives living in villages. Farmers used to host 'city people', giving them accommodation and food, receiving in return some help at harvest time. This form of tourism is at risk in Central and Eastern Europe, as many rural farmers are now elderly and cannot provide suitable accommodation. In parallel, uncontrolled building of weekend homes has proliferated, often in supposedly protected areas. For instance, in the former Czechoslovakia, construction of weekend homes has led to overburdening of several easily accessible natural areas (eg, in the Jizera and Krkonose mountains, and rivers Berounka and Dyje) (MECR and CAS, 1991).

Western European countries are witnessing the rapid development of rural tourism. This is caused partly by the necessity to diversify the rural economy, due to the declining role of agriculture. In France, countryside holidays are popular throughout the year (Figure 25.3). Rural tourism is well organised, with the 'Les Pays d'Accueil' programme catering for many different tastes, such as 'Tourisme à la ferme' and 'L'accueil au château' (Ministère de l'Environnement/Ministère du Tourisme, 1992; 1993).

Golf developments can cause environmental damage where they require removal of earth, take farm and forest land, destroy the natural landscape, disrupt existing hydrological patterns, and entail the draining of wetlands to create greens, fairways and artificial lakes. Erosion and flooding may result. In Ireland, new golf courses (which are normally exempt from planning permission) have been built on coastal dunes. The ploughing, planting with grasses and management activities (eg, mowing, fertilising and use of weed killers) have resulted in loss of floristic and faunistic diversity (Curtis, 1993). The endangered natterjack toad, Bufo calamita, was threatened in dune areas at Castlegregory, County Kerry, Ireland, in the early 1990s (Council of Europe, 1991). In humid climates, pesticide use is a particular concern due to leaching, especially from well- maintained greens. Thus it is important to avoid water sources, sandy areas, or areas with a shallow watertable when locating golf courses. In addition, water requirements for irrigation may put considerable strain on drinking water supplies (particularly a problem for golf courses in the Mediterranean such as along the Costa del Sol), and runoff may be polluted with fertilisers and pesticides. Floodlighting of courses for all-night play requires increased energy for lighting, may cause nuisance to local communities and disturbs wildlife. Golf courses also encourage increased development (eg, clubhouses and chalets) and road traffic. However, guidelines are being produced for sustainable construction and management of courses (eg, see Touche Ross, 1993), and some resorts such as those in Majorca now insist on the use of recycled water for irrigation.

Other recreational activities in rural areas include fishing (described in Chapter 24) and hunting (discussed in Box 25D).

In some parts of Europe, nature is still relatively pristine and untouched by tourism and recreation (eg, the northern part of Nordic countries and Russia). For example, there are at least 25 areas of 1000 km2 or more without roads in the Scandinavian mountain chain (Bernes, 1993). However, the scale of tourism activities has increased rapidly, with tourist development centred around major resorts. The cumulative impacts of tourism and recreation, including transport, waste, noise and increased population, could be substantial in certain areas. For example, wildlife species that frequent riparian habitats could be affected if large numbers of tourists are concentrated near rivers (Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management, 1993).

Mountains

Mountain areas are popular destinations for tourism in Europe. The majority of tourism and recreation in mountain areas in Europe is concentrated in the 190 000 km2 of the Alps (as defined by the Convention on the Protection of the Alps) (Partsch, 1991). This area receives some 100 million tourists every year, of which about 40 per cent visit during the holiday season and the remaining 60 per cent at weekends (Partsch, 1991).

The four main destinations (France, Switzerland, Austria and Italy) account for some 92.5 per cent of the Alpine area, and 90 per cent of total visitor nights (Slovenia, Germany and Liechtenstein account for the remainder) (Jenner and Smith, 1992). The number of visitors to the Alps in the summer has stayed roughly constant over the last 20 years. However, winter visitors have increased considerably over the same period.

The extreme sensitivity of Alpine environments is highlighted by IUCN special guidelines for managing mountain protected areas and the Convention on the Protection of the Alps agreed in 1991 by the International Commission for the Protection of the Alps, which encompasses a protocol on tourism and environment.

Skiing

In 1990 it was estimated that some 50 million people took an Alpine ski holiday (Tourism Concern, 1992). This led to over 40 000 ski runs and over 14 000 lifts by the late 1980s (CEC, 1992b). The trend in development of such infrastructure is illustrated by the case of Switzerland, where installations have grown from around 250 in 1954 to over 1900 by 1990 (BUWAL, 1992). The range of environmental impacts arising from skiing is shown in Box 25E.

In recent decades a number of completely new developments have taken place, including major ones such as that at Les Meunières in France for the Winter Olympics in 1992. The Three Valleys area, also in France, is now the largest ski area in the world, with French skiers making up 80 per cent of the total (Tourism Concern, 1992).

The cumulative environmental impacts of skiing are considerable. Construction of ski pistes and related infrastructure, including access roads and parking, have required the felling of forests, thereby removing habitats and natural protection against avalanches and degrading landscapes (see Box 25E and Chapter 8). Most visitors travel by car, and exhaust fumes lead to further forest damage and air pollution (BUWAL, 1992). In addition, during the last decade, resorts have experienced several poor snow seasons and have attempted to lengthen seasons using artificial snow machines, higher lifts and summer skiing on glaciers. These trends may compound environmental problems related to skiing and increase disturbances to natural areas (though lengthening the skiing season may also help reduce seasonal concentrations of tourists).

There are different problems associated with different forms of skiing. The more severe environmental impacts are normally associated with downhill skiing (eg, in terms of land taken, energy use for infrastructure and vegetation effects). Cross-country skiing tends to have less severe environmental consequences, and is increasingly popular as a form of winter tourism. Some Swiss and Austrian resorts (Zermatt, Saas Fee, Riederalp and Kühboden) have turned themselves into car-free zones or adopted voluntary capacity limitations on car parks, lifts (Grindelwald) or hotel space (see, for example, Krippendorf et al, 1992). However, these measures succeed at the cost of shifting the problem elsewhere, for instance to the Pyrenees or Central and Eastern Europe.

Summer tourism activities

Tourism and recreation in mountain areas in summer are less concentrated than, associated with skiing, in winter. Summer visitors tend to engage in walking and sporting pursuits. Along much-used long distance footpaths, constant wear in summer months can destroy the vegetation cover and leave deep grooves, leading to increased soil erosion. The most controversial aspect of outdoor leisure activities is that they have become increasingly motorised, resulting in noise and increased soil erosion ­ from snowmobiles in winter, and heavy duty vehicles and motorcycles in summer.

It is important to preserve mountain economies in order to develop sustainable tourism; one approach is to preserve the way of life of the local people. In Switzerland and Austria, a policy has been developed to subsidise local people who welcome tourists into their homes by financially supporting appropriate housing conversions. In this way, the local tourist economy benefits, and rural depopulation is reduced (Messerli, 1990).

Coastal areas

Coastal areas are popular tourist destinations all over Europe. Often, however, it is difficult to ascertain the specific role played by tourism in coastal zones, as other human activities (urban, agriculture, fishing and aquaculture, etc) are also prevalent. This is not helped by generally poor data availability (economic, social and environmental) for coastal areas.

Source: Michael St Muir Sheil

The Mediterranean basin (here meaning all countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, but not the Black Sea, thus extending beyond the WTO definitions in Box 25A) is still the world's most important tourist destination, currently attracting some 35 per cent of international tourists worldwide. The Mediterranean basin's attractive landscapes, cultural heritage, traditional lifestyles and good climate and beaches have made it a very popular tourist destination. The area occupied by tourist accommodation and associated infrastructure in 1984 was approximately 4400 km2 and 90 per cent of this was in three countries ­ Spain, France and Italy. This has been forecast to double to 8000 km2 by 2025. The solid waste generated by tourists in the Mediterranean region, currently 2.9 million tonnes per year, would by this scenario increase to between 8.7 and 12.1 million tonnes by 2025, while wastewater would increase from 0.3 billion m3 to between 0.9 and 1.5 billion m3 (Grenon and Batisse, 1988).

The number of tourists to the Mediterranean basin tripled from 54 to 157 million between 1970 and 1990 (WTO, 1993a). In some countries, such as Greece, this number grew six-fold. In other countries, such as Turkey, there has been a four-fold increase in the number of tourists, and more than a three-fold increase in bed capacity between 1983 and 1991 (WTO, 1993a). In the worst affected areas the carrying capacity simply cannot accommodate the peak concentrations of tourists, which, for example, reached 4250 people/km2 in the Tarragona area of Spain in August 1987 (CEC, 1992b).

Figure 25.4 shows that, for the major Mediterranean destinations, most visitors arrive by road, and the next most by air.

Box 25F summarises the major environmental impacts of tourism and recreation in coastal areas, particularly the Mediterranean, which can lead to a downward spiral of environmental degradation. This has been experienced to some degree in the Algarve, along the Mediterranean coastline on the Spanish Costas, Cyprus and Turkey.

In Northern Europe, parts of the French and Belgian seaboard and traditional resorts in The Netherlands and UK and the Baltic Sea coasts still attract large numbers, but they do not suffer from the numbers or concentrations found in the Mediterranean. In some countries such as Denmark, the number of tourists has increased markedly in the last five years. The Black Sea is the major tourist destination for tourists in Central and Eastern Europe, currently attracting about 40 million tourists annually (GEF, 1993). However, declining environmental quality in the Black Sea is having serious negative consequences on tourism in the area. Poor planning, unsanitary conditions, insufficient drinking water and lack of user fees has led to increased environmental stress and severe health problems (including occasional outbreaks of cholera). The regular closure of some beaches has put pressure on previously clean ones. Furthermore, in the past, meagre user fees and tourist taxes gathered in countries with centrally planned economies were not usually reinvested in improving local services (Hey and Mee, 1993).

Cities and heritage sites

Many of the major tourist attractions in Europe are of historic, cultural or religious interest. Often these may be in or close to urban areas. Some 25 of the top 45 tourist attractions in Europe, each one attracting more than 750 000 visitors per year, are sites, museums and historic buildings in cities. In 1986, 19 per cent of EU citizens preferred to visit cities for their holidays (European Omnibus Survey, 1987). In Central and Eastern Europe, cities of cultural and historic interest, such as Prague, Budapest and St Petersburg, are increasingly attracting Western European tourists.

Tourism may act as an incentive for urban redevelopment. Large host populations and adequate infrastructures in major tourist cities easily absorb high-volume tourism. In smaller, confined areas, such as walled towns or historic sites (eg, Bath, UK, or Florence, Italy) the concentration of tourists gives rise to serious environmental management problems, either related to lack of infrastructure or to traffic congestion and emissions, or to wear and tear on buildings (Brady Shipman Martin, 1993).

The World Heritage List of UNESCO, currently with over 350 sites worldwide, includes cultural, natural and mixed sites, with the ultimate objective to ensure adequate protection of selected sites. Currently there are about ten times as many cultural sites (such as the 'leaning' Tower of Pisa, Italy) as natural sites (eg, Bialowie´za National Park/Puszcza Bialowieska, Poland) in Europe. The designation of mixed sites (eg, Mont St Michel in France) has brought a new dimension to environmental management directed towards tourism by bringing the natural and cultural environments together (though these sites currently constitute less than 5 per cent of the list in Europe). The World Heritage List does not include each and every site worth protecting for future generations. However, because it provides a solid core of recognised sites, for which the World Heritage Convention facilitates international cooperation, the list provides a basis for coordinated action (Batisse, 1992).

Theme and leisure parks

There have been growing investments in theme parks throughout Europe (particularly in The Netherlands, Denmark, UK, France, Germany and Spain). Of the 45 most visited tourist attractions in Western Europe, some 20 were theme parks, attracting nearly 48 million visitors in 1991. There are now more than 50 major parks, each one attracting more than 750 000 visitors per year (Euromonitor, 1992). The so-called second generation parks are modelled on US-style parks providing accommodation in a 'good environment'. For instance, the Center Parcs chain (which started in The Netherlands) is based on holiday villages offering all-weather recreation in rural environments. These are designed to spread the tourist season throughout the year, and increase domestic tourism. However, the resource use of these parks is considerable. For instance, of the 13 parks run by Center Parcs in Northern and Western Europe, the average site covers 1.5 km2 and, per person a day consumes 20 kWh of electricity, 6 m3 of gas and 150 to 180 litres of water (depending on whether or not the park has a swimming pool) (Brettle, 1989)). Around the Mediterranean, water-based theme parks are being developed to attract visitors away from the congested coasts.

OUTLOOK

Main determining factors

Economic conditions

The future demand for tourism and recreation will be determined by a large number of factors, most importantly by national and regional economic trends. There is an almost constant elasticity of demand for leisure tourism (ie, greater disposable income means greater tourism and vice versa), while business tourism is less affected by economic conditions. The other major underlying factors determining the future demand for tourism are summarised below.

Increased leisure time

Shorter working weeks, flexible working patterns, and spreading of annual leave more evenly over the year are all expected to lead to an increased demand for non-sporting winter holidays and short breaks to leisure parks, national parks and cities. While throughout the EU an average of about one third of holidays are taken during the peak season (July to September), the figures are much higher for certain types of holiday, such as sun and beach, touring, countryside and sports holidays, particularly in certain countries, such as France (Institut für Planungskybernetik, 1989).

Demographic factors

At least as far as the EU is concerned, the forecast increase in Europe's population will have a negligible impact on tourism. However, changes in the population structure, with a greater proportion of pensioners, will increase demand for certain types of tourism and recreation (WTO, 1993c).

Socio-cultural factors

Trends towards later marriage, and more working women, means that many young couples have high disposable incomes; the increasing interest in education and different cultures is leading to a shift from package tourism to more environmentally sensitive types of tourism and recreation.

Increased environmental awareness

In a survey carried out in Germany in 1988, some 47 per cent of those interviewed reported serious environmental problems noticed at their holiday destination, compared with only 22 per cent in a comparable survey in 1985. A similar survey in 1992 shows that environmental quality was perceived as having deteriorated further and, in the case of Spain, over 70 per cent of those interviewed reported the Spanish environment as damaged by tourism (StfT, 1986; 1989; 1992). As a consequence of this new awareness, eco-tourism (see below is becoming increasingly important, although this is dependent on the country in question and on economic conditions.

Reduction in the cost of travel

Reduced travel costs and increased access to private transport, particularly in Central and Eastern and Southern Europe, will lead to more European travel, with large numbers of Central and Eastern Europeans already visiting the Mediterranean, and Western Europeans visiting Central and Eastern European countries. In addition, changes to the regulatory environment within the EU, such as deregulation of air transport and coaches, are expected to make short-break trips more accessible.

Types of tourism

These trends are leading to changes in the nature of tourism in Europe and its environmental consequences.

Mass tourism

Most of Europe will experience a gradual decline in mass tourism. Mass tourism exerts a heavy burden on the environment as it is concentrated not only in terms of absolute numbers of tourists, but also in both time and space. Although mass tourism is still popular for tourists from Central and Eastern Europe, in the longer term they are likely to take advantage of the opportunities for independent travel. Western and Northern Europeans are increasingly choosing self-catering accommodation and multi-centre or touring holidays based on fly-drive. However, there is expected to be continued growth in purpose-built villages, such as timeshare developments, retirement homes or weekend/second homes in apartment blocks. Typically these developments provide activity and health facilities such as golf courses, swimming pools and shops, meeting/conference centres and marinas.

Activity-based tourism

Activity-based tourism exerts specific stresses on the environment and is expected to grow faster than passive 'rest and relaxation' tourism. Golf and sailing are increasingly popular; for instance, in France, of a total 425 golf courses in 1991, some 300 were built in the previous ten years (Ceron, 1992). The most significant current development is the creation of golf resorts that incorporate large-scale developments into the course landscape. In Central and Eastern Europe international tourism operators are trying to develop golf courses and marinas in previously unspoiled areas such as the Lahemaa National Park in Estonia (FNNPE, 1993). Other adventure activities such as scuba diving, horse-riding, hot-air ballooning, canoeing, and off-road driving are all being developed as niche markets for both group and specialist tourism.

Eco-tourism

The World Tourism and Travel Environment Research Centre (WTTRC) has defined eco-tourism as:

implying a building of environmental considerations into all tourism and travel products and their consumption. This would suggest that sustainable tourism development is a level of activity at or below the level which will not result in environmental or socio-cultural deterioration or be perceived by tourists as depreciating their enjoyment and appreciation of the area.

(cited in ERM and StfT, 1993)

This, however, does not imply that eco-tourism does not have environmental impacts ­ only that such impacts are less than those of mass and activity-based tourism.

There is a wide variety of forms of eco-tourism, from village-type development to nature-based tourism, which might include walking and hiking, cycling in rural areas, staying in rural farmhouses, bird-watching, and other low impact sports. There is expected to be a growth in environmentally sensitive tourism and recreation, as a result of increasing environmental awareness. Areas such as the Covadonga Park (in the mountain region of Asturias and Coto Doñana, near Seville, Spain) and the Central Istria National Park (Croatia) are increasingly attracting tourists away from congested coastal strips to take advantage of unexploited inland areas. The Council of Europe has proposed a number of pilot projects on 'soft' tourism which comprise both natural and artificial sites, together with extensive agriculture and light industry (Lalumière, 1993).

Regional trends

How will trends in these types of tourism and recreation be manifest in different parts of Europe? Most forecasters of tourism trends expect that European tourism arrivals (both domestic and international) will continue to grow at an average rate of between 3 and 5 per cent each year in the 1990s (reaching 6 per cent each year between 1995 and 2000), which translates to 380 to 440 million arrivals each year by 2000 (eg, EIU, 1992). In favourable economic conditions, consumer purchasing power is likely to increase, and tourism expenditure will account for an increasing proportion of discretionary spending. The likely trends in international arrivals by each European region are summarized in Figure 25.5. For demographic reasons, the total number of domestic tourists is not likely to increase much, but growth is expected to result from an increased number of trips taken (eg, for second holidays and short breaks) with a broader seasonal spread (Euromonitor, 1992; Jenner and Smith, 1992). Such a development would allow operators to achieve better capacity utilisation and avoid the large-scale building of recent years.

Central and Eastern Europe

Growth in tourism to and from Central and Eastern Europe is expected to be greater than that for all Europe. By 1990, 50 million visitors were coming annually to Central and Eastern Europe, mainly from Western Europe. In a study carried out on tourism resources and strategies in Poland, Hungary, the former Czechoslovakia, the former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, the development of cultural and nature-based tourism was seen as a major objective by all governments (Cambridge Economic Consultants, 1993). Measures to open up borders, deregulate exchange rates and provide quality tourist infrastructure, including roads, bed capacity and sporting facilities, are beginning to take effect. Developments are being focused on natural areas, cultural/health facilities such as spas, the coastlines of the Black Sea, and budget skiing resorts in Bulgaria and the Slovak Republic.

The Mediterranean basin

It has been forecast that by 2025 there will be about 380 million tourists in the Mediterranean basin (including all countries bordering the Mediterranean, but not the Black Sea) if economic growth is weak, and about 760 million tourists if it is strong. Almost half the tourists will be along the coastline. These figures are in addition to the growth of the local population, which has been forecast to rise from 350 million people in 1985 to between 530 and 570 million by 2025 (Grenon and Batisse, 1988). There is a trend towards environmental improvement in receiving areas, largely as a result of the demands made by tourists, particularly for good quality drinking and bathing waters. This is beginning to lead to better pollution monitoring and control through schemes such as Blue Flag beaches and Coastwatch, and the introduction of reduce, 're-use and recycle' policies by tourist operators (see below) (ERM and StfT, 1993).

Alpine areas

Tourist demand in the Alps is expected to stabilise by 2000 (Jenner and Smith, 1992), but to continue to grow in other mountain areas such as the Pyrenees, Greece (Mounts Olympus, Parnassus and Pindos) and Central and Eastern Europe, which will experience similar problems to the rest of Europe unless tourism development is planned and carrying capacity defined. In all major resorts, trends are away from reliance on skiing and snow and towards developing multi-sport facilities for the summer and spring seasons. These developments could be less environmentally damaging than prolonged skiing seasons and would make local communities less dependent on the short winter season.

Northern European wilderness areas

Large areas with relatively untouched nature, such as found in the Nordic countries, in Russia, and some parts of Central and Eastern Europe, are also threatened. This is not because the number of visitors is too high, but because, relative to their 'untouched' status, almost any impact is too much. Thus, if these areas are to be protected and safeguarded, action must be taken to moderate their tourist development.

MANAGING FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Currently, in many countries there is an increased commitment to the concept of tourism based on sustainable development. This has led to international agreements on tourism and environment (eg, the Convention on the Protection of the Alps agreed in 1991, and the Euro-Mediterranean Declaration on Tourism within Sustainable Development in September 1993). However, unfortunately, no form of tourism is completely environmentally friendly. Tourism by its very nature is a burden on the environment, and therefore requires careful control and planning.

Some general principles that can be used to progress towards sustainable tourism are shown in Box 25G. In order to adhere to such principles, however, decision makers rely on a package of good practice tools such as:

CONCLUSIONS