Circularity of the EU textiles value chain in numbers

This briefing is underpinned by 14 metrics included in the new module of the European Environment Agency’s (EEA’s) Circularity Metrics Lab (CML) on textiles. It is also supported by two technical reports from the EEA’s European Topic Centre on Circular Economy and Resource Use (ETC CE), ’Measuring Europe’s textiles circularity — through the lenses of the EEA Circularity Metrics Lab’ and ‘Textiles and the environment — The role of digital technologies in Europe’s circular economy’.

Production and consumption of textiles has grown

In 2023, the EU textile and clothing sector had a turnover of EUR 170 billion, employing about 1.3 million people across 197,000 companies (Euratex, 2024). After production volumes dropped temporarily in 2020, the sector reached pre-pandemic levels again in 2022 (ETC CE, 2025a). EU textiles production mainly specialises in technical textiles (such as. non-wovens, technical and industrial textiles, ropes and fabrics for use in healthcare and agriculture, sportswear, etc.) and in high-value clothing and footwear. Regarding exports, in 2022, 4.0 million tonnes of finished textiles were exported, representing a value of EUR 73 billion.

The circularity and sustainability of textiles in the EU are affected by the implementation of the EU strategy on sustainable and circular textiles through concrete policy initiatives (EC, 2022). This includes the Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation (ESPR) (EU, 2024a) — introducing the mandatory development of digital product passports. It also includes, most recently, the targeted revision of the Waste Framework Directive, which sets new rules on waste textiles (EU, 2025).

As the implementation of the strategy and the related policies moves forward in the coming years, it will be vital to monitor the progress towards the circularity of textiles. The EEA Circular Metrics Lab modules on textile help to fill current gaps in data, indicators and knowledge (see Box 1).

Box 1

The EEA's Circularity Metrics Lab uses a range of sources such as European datasets, national statistics, surveys and novel dataflows to provide insights on progress towards the development of the circular economy. It is intended to complement other monitoring frameworks by presenting additional evidence on circularity, including metrics focused on the implementation of circular principles and practices.

The thematic modules are groups of circularity metrics on a specific topic:

• textiles (new);
• plastics;
• waste prevention;
• product lifespans.

The Circular Metrics Lab complements the EUs Circular Economy Monitoring Framework (Eurostat, 2025), including for specific modules like textiles.

Source: EEA, 2025

The market for both new and used textiles is highly globalised, involving millions of producers, brands, traders and handlers as well as billions of consumers worldwide (EEA, 2019) . Since the 1970s, the global production of textiles has almost tripled. This is mostly due to the production of synthetic fibres — from plastics made from oil and gas — which now comprise 60-70% of all textiles sold worldwide (EEA, 2019).

In 2022, 11 million tonnes of textile products were imported to the EU. In terms of volume, clothing accounted for almost half of the imports (45%). In contrast, household textiles accounted for 21%; footwear for 17%, while other textiles (non-wovens, industrial textiles, ropes, etc.) accounted for 12% (ETC CE, 2025a). EU imports came mainly from China, Bangladesh and Turkey (Euratex, 2024); these imports represented a value of EUR 153 billion.

Further possibilities arise from the wider outreach of online marketing, targeted directly through brands and also via platforms owned in Europe and in other regions of the world. Many of these online platforms operate mostly in fast or ultra-fast fashion, selling very large and increasing amounts of low-quality products at very low prices. This puts increasing pressure on the environment and climate.

Since consumers cannot try on the items they purchase online before they buy, some tend to purchase the same product in different sizes to try on at home. This often results in them returning or, in some cases, even throwing away the products that do not fit. Lenient return practices have resulted in an increase in returns, of which 22-44% never reaches a new customer and is destroyed (ETC CE, 2024; Roichman et al., 2024). Access to online stores across the globe has increased transportation emissions and waste, including from packaging (UNCTAD, 2024).

The average consumption of clothing, footwear and household textiles per person in the EU increased most recently from 17kg per person in 2019 to 19kg per person in 2022. Between 2010 and 2019, consumption fluctuated between 14kg and 17kg.

Figure 2. EU-27 apparent consumption of clothing, footwear and household textiles, 2010-2022

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The relative share of textiles in the total household expenditure has not changed over the last decade and remains stable at 5% (ETC CE, 2025a).

The textiles industry value chain represents the fifth largest in terms of employment compared to other household consumption domains, following food, housing, mobility and restaurants and hotels (ETC CE, 2025a).

Digitalisation is rapidly impacting the textiles industry

Thus, the system of production and consumption of textiles can therefore become more resource-efficient, transparent and competitive through the integration of digital technologies. Beneficial results include more innovative design, smarter production processes, better matching of supply and demand, optimisation of supply chains, waste reduction, new business models and improved lifecycle management (ETC CE, 2025a).

Figure 3. Digital technologies emerging in the textiles industry

The textile industry has already undergone a significant digital transformation in recent years. It has integrated IoT applications into textile manufacturing, automating production and logistic processes as well as met the increasing consumer demand for personalised products. The COVID-19 pandemic has further accelerated this need for digitalisation. It initiated a surge in e-commerce and then evolved in general into a more digital way of working — a trend that will most likely continue in the future (Euratex, 2023). Moreover, digital technologies are widely acknowledged as important enablers of circular business models and competitiveness.

From the perspective of the circular economy, the functionalities offered by digital technologies and data analytics are diverse. These include potentially delivering necessary information to inform decision-making and optimisation processes to increase resource efficiency; extending product lifetimes through circular design, maintenance and repair, as well as closing product and material loops (Antikainen et al., 2018; Bressanelli et al., 2018; Broccardo et al., 2023).

There are also significant risks and potential trade-offs related to the use of digital technologies. This means that thorough assessments are needed to determine whether or not they really reduce negative environmental and climate impacts from textiles.

Widespread adoption of digital technologies in textile production and distribution may also have considerable social impacts. Automation and shifting from traditional retail to online trade might, for example, lead to changes in the employment in the sector, with employees in the textiles value chain losing their jobs due to changes in technology.

As highlighted by the EU strategy on textiles, overconsumption and fast fashion will not be solved by technology alone. Systemic changes in production, marketing and selling are needed, as well as strong regulation and consumption changes to ensure circularity and sustainability.

High environmental and climate pressures from EU textiles consumption

In 2022, out of 12 categories of European household consumption — such as food, mobility, housing, health and education — textile consumption ranked, on average, the fifth largest in terms of environmental and climate pressures. The EEA measured these impacts across the metrics of raw material use, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and water and land use.

Raw material use

Figure 4. The use of primary raw materials per person in the upstream supply chain of EU-27 household consumption domains, 2022

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While consumption volumes of textiles per person increased by 15% between 2010 and 2022, raw material use dropped by 24%. After decreasing between 2010 and 2016, the use of raw materials has since remained relatively stable. In 2022, there was a slight increase. These results show that the raw material intensity of textile consumption (i.e. the amount of raw material use per volume of consumption) has decreased.

Greenhouse gas emission

In 2022 , the value chain of textile products consumed in the EU caused total GHG emissions of 159 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalents (CO₂e) (ETC CE, 2025a). This corresponds to 355kg of CO₂e per person per year, or the equivalent of 1,800km of travel by a standard petrol car. Textiles are thereby the sixth largest household consumption category in terms of pressures on the climate, after housing, food and mobility and comparable to restaurants and hotels as well as recreation and culture (see Figure 5). About 70% of emissions are released outside Europe, mostly in Asia where the majority of textile production takes place. This is a higher share than for other household consumption categories (ETC WMGE, 2019).

Figure 5. Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the upstream supply chain of EU-27 household consumption domains, 2022

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From 2010 to 2022, overall GHG emissions from textile consumption decreased due to efficiency gains. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, consumption levels reduced temporarily but increased again afterwards. This was accompanied by a slight increase in emissions.

While per capita consumption increased by 15% from 2010 to 2022, GHG emissions decreased by 22%. This indicates a 32% reduction in the emission intensity of textile consumption (amount of emissions per volume of consumption).

Water use

About 5,300 million cubic metres (m³) of ‘blue’ water was required to produce clothing, footwear and household textiles purchased by EU households in 2022; this amounts to 12m³ per person (ETC CE, 2025a). ‘Blue’ water is a measure of how much surface and groundwater is consumed in irrigation, industry processes or household use. A large share of the water is used to irrigate cotton fields to produce natural fibres. This ranks textile consumption fourth in terms of water use, after food, housing, and restaurants and hotels. About 85% of the consumption of ‘blue’ water for textiles takes place outside Europe, mainly in Asia where agricultural and other production and manufacturing predominantly take place.

While consumption per person increased by 15% between 2010 and 2022, water use remained almost constant (-1%). This shows that the water intensity of textile consumption, or the amount of water use per volume of consumption, has decreased (-15%). However, the decrease in water use intensity is offset by increased consumption volumes. There was therefore no absolute decrease in water use per person.

Land use

Land areas of about 144,000km², or 323m² per person, were required to produce the textiles consumed by European households in 2022 (ETC CE, 2025a). This ranks textiles consumption fifth in terms of land use after food, restaurants and hotels, beverages and miscellaneous goods and services. Over 80% of land use impact is generated outside Europe; this can be partly attributed to, for example, cotton fibre production mainly in China and India (ETC WMGE, 2019). After an apparent drop in land use in 2020 and 2021, land use increased again. Specifically, European land use for textiles remains relatively constant at around 50m² per person.

While consumption per person increased by 15% between 2010 and 2022, land use only increased by 3%. This shows that the amount of land used per volume of consumption has decreased since 2010 (-10%).

Other pressures

The textiles value chain contributes to other environmental pressures not analysed in detail here. These include air pollution, chemical use and pollution, microplastics pollution from production, the use and washing of textiles, as well as pressures from the handling of textiles that end up as waste ( ETC CE, 2025b; EEA, 2019). Additionally, the export of used textiles from the EU to other continents causes a shift of environmental impacts, such as uncontrolled incineration and landfilling (ETC CE, 2025b).

Hazardous chemical substances are widely used in textiles and can have negative long-term impacts on environmental and human health . Restricted chemicals found in certain textile products in the EU exceed safety thresholds set by the REACH Regulation (EU, 2006) with clothing, textile and fashion items among the products most frequently reported to the EU rapid alert system for consumer protection (EEA, 2025).

Specifically, synthetic per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been used for decades to repel water, oil and dirt, and provide thermal stability and durability for clothing and other textiles. This is concerning because of their persistence and the negative impacts of many PFAS on the environment and human health (EEA, 2024b).

Microplastics released from synthetic fibres are estimated to be the fourth largest source of unintentional microplastic release into Europe’s environment (EC, 2023).

Used and waste textiles: many management and export challenges

In 2022, EU Member States generated about 6.94 million tonnes of textile waste, which amounts to 16kg per person (EEA, 2024a; ETC CE, 2025a; ETC CE 2025b). The total amount of textile waste generation has remained relatively stable since 2016.

The average capture rate of textile waste in the EU — an indicator of the effectiveness of separate collection systems — has been slowly increasing, rising by 4.3 percentage points since 2016 (EEA, 2023; ETC CE, 2025b). In 2022, the capture rate was just under 15%. This means that 85% of all textile waste from households was not collected separately and instead ended up as mixed household waste, from which it can’t be reused or recycled. There is therefore room for improvement in terms of separate textile collection systems (ETC CE, 2025b). Implementation of EU legislation on separate textile waste collection starting in 2025 is expected to significantly increase the capture rates for textiles from households (ETC CE, 2025b).

The amount and share of textile waste sent to landfill in Europe has decreased, from 21% in 2010 to 12% in 2022 (EEA, 2023; ETC CE, 2025b). The amount sent for incineration (with and without energy recovery) in Europe has increased from 10% in 2010 to 14% in 2022.

Furthermore, an estimated 4-9% of all textile products put on the market in Europe are destroyed before use. This amounts to between 264,000 and 594,000 tonnes of textiles being destroyed each year (EEA, 2024c).

Since 2000, the export of used textiles has nearly tripled, from a little over 550,000 tonnes in 2000, to 1.4 million tonnes in 2019 (EEA, 2023; ETC CE, 2023). Since then, the volume has remained relatively constant, with 1.4 million tonnes having been exported in 2023.

While exports of used textiles from the EU are intended for reuse or recycling, the reality is more diverse. Studies show that EU textile exports enter a very complex pattern of trade, sorting, reuse, recycling and landfilling, as well as being burned or dumped in nature across mainly African and Asian countries. In Asia, used textiles from the EU are most often sorted and then re-exported, recycled or end up in landfills, or else they are burned or dumped in nature. In contrast, in Africa they are either reused and sold in local markets or else end up in landfills; alternatively, they are burned or dumped in nature (EEA, 2023; ETC CE, 2023).

Countries in Africa and Asia are the main importers of used European textiles, with Asia gradually increasing its share (ETC CE, 2025a; ETC CE 2025b). In 2000, 60% went to Africa and only 28% to Asia. By 2023, Africa and Asia received an almost equal amount of textiles exported from the EU, with Pakistan (13%), United Arab Emirates (12%) and India (7%) being the main importers. Figure 6 shows the countries receiving the most used textiles from the EU.

Key observations from the EEA Circularity Metrics Lab

To provide a stronger knowledge base for policy implementation and development, the EEA provides data, information and knowledge to support the shift towards a circular and more sustainable economy. Despite the strong policy focus on textiles in the EU in recent years, there are significant monitoring, data and indicator gaps. This means that the state of the European circular textile economy, as well as its drivers, pressures and responses, are still difficult to assess. To address gaps, the EEA and the ETC CE have established a new module of the Circular Metrics Lab, as illustrated in Figure 7 below.

After analysing the 14 metrics on textiles in the Circular Metrics Lab, some key observations can be made:

1. Increased circularity of textiles can reduce negative impacts on the environment, climate and human health

Enhancing circularity in the EU textile value chain by extending product lifespans through longer use, increased reuse, repair and more efficient recycling, can reduce the demand for new raw materials. It can also lower pollution. While recycling primarily lessens the need for virgin resources rather than reducing the overall consumption, the combined effects of these circular strategies help lower the environmental and climate pressures from the textile value chain. However, addressing chemical risks in textiles — including from PFAS — is crucial, as harmful substances can hinder material reuse and recycling.

2. Increasing consumption levels have partially outweighed gains from production efficiency

Between 2010 and 2022, the textile value chain has made efficiency improvements. This has led to some decoupling between environmental pressures and production levels. Despite a 15% increase in consumption, absolute decoupling was achieved for GHG emissions (-24%) and raw material use (-22%). However, these efficiency gains have slowed down recently, stabilising the levels of GHG emissions and raw material use. For land (+3%) and water use (-1%), relative decoupling occurred. This suggests that pressures from land and water use have not significantly worsened. This is partly due to the increased use of synthetic fibres, which mainly causes other pressures such as raw material use and GHG emissions.

Despite these gains, higher consumption levels have partly outweighed potential environmental and climate benefits. The COVID-19 pandemic temporarily reduced pressures across all measured categories, but these pressures rose again post-pandemic (ETC CE, 2025). This highlights the importance of addressing overconsumption and fast fashion. It also underscores the need to promote greater textile circularity.

3. Effective separate collection systems are needed to divert used and waste textiles from incineration, landfill and exports

In 2022, while the consumption of clothing, footwear and household textiles in the EU-27 increased to 19kg per person on average, textile waste levels have remained relatively stable, amounting to 16kg per person on average in the same year. It is unclear whether this was due to textile products being kept for longer or being reused or whether it was because of challenges in collecting the data.

The amount of textile waste and shoes not separately collected is more than twice the amount of that reported to be separately collected. As the textiles that are not separately collected end up in the mixed household waste destined for landfills or incineration, this is a missed opportunity for reuse and recycling.

The Waste Framework Directive mandates that from 2025, EU Member States must establish separate collection systems for used textiles (EU, 2018). This will most likely increase the share of separately collected textile waste in the coming years. When more discarded textiles need handling, export volumes are expected to increase. This is unless new EU policies under the Waste Shipments Regulation (EU, 2024b) and United Nations (UN) agreements under the Basel Convention (UN, 2025) effectively restrict the exports.

Textiles exported to Africa are mostly reused or end up in dumps; alternatively, they are burned in open landfills. In contrast, textiles exported to Asia are largely recycled or re-exported (EEA, 2023) or else they end up in dumps or are burned in open landfills. To handle the high and possibly increasing volumes, Europe will need to strengthen its sorting and treatment capacities. This will help limit the amount of textile waste sent to landfills or incineration in Europe and elsewhere. It is also vital to ensure that the newly established European collection systems are efficient.

4. Data, information and knowledge gaps limit effective monitoring and analysis of the circular economy of textiles in the EU

Reliable and publicly accessible information, knowledge, indicators and data are essential for measuring the circularity of textiles in Europe and also for supporting informed decision-making. European textile policies, such as the EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles (EC, 2022) and the Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation (EU, 2024a)) , have relied on insights provided by the EEA and others. The EEA Circular Metrics Lab textiles module (EEA, 2025) offers regularly updated information to help guide the formulation and implementation of EU textile policies.

The lack of transparent, comprehensive and reproducible data means that it is difficult to effectively monitor the evolution of key metrics. Consequently, it is challenging to draw sound conclusions and develop actionable policy options. While EU-level data on textile production and consumption volumes are relatively robust, information is scarce about use-phase aspects, the implications of fast fashion and circular business models and also waste trade patterns. Examples of data gaps also include elements like the number of textile products put on the EU market, the speed of collection, product lifespans, repair efforts, reuse rates and recycling performance. These factors are critical in assessing circularity dimensions like lifetime extension and intensified product (re)use.

Addressing these gaps requires the formalisation of new data streams, consistency in data collection and assessment methods as well as improved transparency and accessibility of data. These steps would enhance the ability to evaluate the state of textile circularity in Europe. They would also help detect trends and disruptions as well as support decision-making from a systemic perspective.

5. Effects of policy implementation are to be seen in the data for metrics in the coming years

In conjunction with other EU policies, the EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles (EC, 2022) outlines ambitious goals and policies to help address challenges in the textiles value chain. A shift away from fast fashion is central to the strategy. Focusing on circular design will help extend product lifetimes and create durable, high-quality textiles. Over time, these measures are expected to reduce consumption or consumption growth — particularly of clothing and footwear — by addressing consumption patterns and the circularity potential of various products.

Reversing the overconsumption of clothing and incentivising and scaling circular business models, including longer use and reuse, is at the core of the EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles (EC, 2022). By prioritising textiles designed for durability and reuse, reuse rates are expected to increase if the strategy is implemented successfully.

Furthermore, the strategy seeks to minimise the environmental and climate pressures from textiles, as measured by the Circular Metrics Lab monitoring of raw material use, water use, land use and GHG emissions. Chemical risks are addressed through the REACH Regulation (EU, 2006) and the chemicals strategy for sustainability (EC, 2020) , which aim to minimise hazardous substances in textiles. The EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles aims to help the textile industry replace harmful substances wherever possible and minimise their presence in textiles entering the EU market (EC, 2022). Stricter regulation combined with enhanced market surveillance will likely increase alerts of chemicals labelled as hazardous. Over time, the level of harmful substances in textiles should decrease.

Another key focus is promoting recycled content. The Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation (ESPR) aims for a significant share of textiles to contain recycled fibres by 2030 (EU, 2024a). This goal, supported by mandatory recycled content requirements, can boost market adoption. It can also drive improvements in collection, sorting and recycling to be reflected in the respective metric. Monitoring textile waste generation is also crucial, with the waste hierarchy guiding policies working towards the reduction, reuse and recycling of textiles.

Finally, the EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles prioritises textile reuse and recycling. In a fully circular economy, none of the separately collected textiles should go to incineration or landfill. Instead, non-reusable textiles should be directed to recycling. Monitoring this share is crucial. Implementing the strategy should result in a decline in the textile volumes sent to incineration or landfill.