Europe’s air quality status 2024

PM₁₀ stands for particulate matter with a diameter of 10µm or less. PM₁₀ is emitted mainly by the combustion of solid fuels for domestic heating, although industrial activities, agriculture and road transport are also important sources. Some also come from natural sources such as sea salt, Saharan dust or volcanoes, and some (secondary PM) form in the atmosphere as a combination of different gases (for instance, ammonia and nitrogen dioxide). Member States can discount the contribution of natural sources to the total concentrations for compliance assessments as these sources are out of their control, but we do not exclude these sources in this status analysis.

Concentrations above the EU daily limit value for PM₁₀ are seen mainly in Italy and some eastern European countries (Map 1 and Figure 3). In most central and eastern European countries, solid fuels such as coal and wood are widely used for heating households and in some industrial facilities and power plants. The Po Valley in northern Italy is a densely populated and industrialised area with specific meteorological and geographical conditions that favour the accumulation of air pollutants in the atmosphere. Some concentrations are also above the EU daily limit value in southern Spain and the Canary Islands, mainly due to the natural contributions of Saharan dust (MITECO, 2023).

Map 1. Concentrations of PM₁₀ in 2022 and 2023 in relation to the EU daily limit value

Note: The map shows the 90.4th percentile of the PM₁₀ daily mean concentrations, representing the 36th-highest value in a complete series. It is related to the PM₁₀ daily limit value, allowing 35 exceedances of the 50µg/m³ threshold over one year.

Source: EEA’s AQ e-reporting database.

Table 3. Country status for PM₁₀ in 2022 and 2023

Note: (^a) all the reporting countries; (^b) all the reporting countries except Estonia and Iceland; (^c) all the reporting countries except Luxembourg.

Source: EEA’s AQ e-reporting database.

Figure 2. Percentage of reporting monitoring stations registering PM₁₀ concentrations above the EU limit values and the WHO guideline levels in 2022 and 2023

In 2022, 16% of monitoring stations measured concentrations of PM₁₀ above the EU daily limit value (Figure 2), 84% of which were urban and 12% suburban.

Furthermore, Italy and Poland reported 2022 exceedances of the PM₁₀ daily limit value based on assessment models for 7 and 13 air quality zones, respectively.

Figure 3. PM₁₀ concentrations in 2022 by country in relation to the EU daily limit value

Note: The figure shows, per country, the concentrations of each reported station; the minimum and maximum concentrations; the median and the 25th and 75th percentiles of all the measurements (90.4th percentile of the PM₁₀ daily mean concentrations).

PM_2.5 stands for particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5µm or less. These particles are emitted mainly from the combustion of solid fuels for domestic heating, industrial activities and road transport. As with PM₁₀, they can also come from natural sources and can form in the atmosphere. For compliance assessments, Member States can discount the contribution of natural sources to the total concentrations as these sources are out of their control, but in this status analysis, we do not exclude them. Agricultural emissions of ammonia significantly contribute to forming fine particulate matter in the atmosphere.

PM_2.5 concentrations above the EU annual limit value were seen in Italy and some eastern European countries (Map 2 and Figure 5). As for PM₁₀, solid fuel use is the main reason for the situation in central and eastern Europe, together with an older vehicle fleet. In northern Italy, the high concentrations are due to the combination of a high density of anthropogenic emissions and also meteorological and geographical conditions that favour the accumulation of air pollutants in the atmosphere and the formation of secondary particles.

Map 2. Concentrations of PM_2.5 in 2022 and 2023 in relation to the EU annual limit value and the WHO annual guideline level

Source: EEA’s AQ e-reporting database.

Table 4. Country status for PM_2.5 in 2022 and 2023

Notes: (^a) all the reporting countries, except Iceland; (^b) all the reporting countries.

Source: EEA’s AQ e-reporting database.

Figure 4. Percentage of reporting monitoring stations registering PM_2.5 concentrations above the EU annual limit value and the WHO guideline levels in 2022 and 2023

In 2022, 2% of monitoring stations registered concentrations of PM_2.5 above the EU annual limit value (Figure 4), 78% of which were urban and 15% suburban. In contrast, 95% of the PM_2.5 reporting stations registered concentrations above the WHO annual guideline level, 76% of which were urban and 20% suburban.

Furthermore, Italy and Poland reported exceedances of the PM_2.5 annual limit value based on assessment models for three and one air quality zones, respectively.

Regarding the EU standards related to the Average Exposure Indicator^[2] for PM_2.5, which assesses the general population’s long-term exposure in urban areas, all EU Member States continued to meet the exposure concentration obligation of 20µg/m³ in 2022, set as a 2015 target under the ambient air quality directive^[3]. Furthermore, for the first time, all Member States^[4] met the national exposure reduction target set for 2020.

Figure 5. PM_2.5 concentrations in 2022 by country in relation to the EU annual limit value and the WHO annual guideline level

Note: The figure shows, per country, the concentrations of each reported station, the minimum and maximum concentrations, the median and the 25th and 75th percentiles of all the measurements (annual mean PM_2.5. concentrations).

Ozone (O₃) is a pollutant formed in the atmosphere when heat and light cause chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including methane (which is also a powerful greenhouse gas). Emissions of these gases occur from anthropogenic sources and, in the case of VOCs, also biogenic. Ozone is also transported to Europe from other parts of the northern hemisphere and the upper atmosphere. Meteorology plays an important role in forming and dispersing air pollution, and interannual variations in concentrations. This effect is especially significant for ozone.

Map 3. Concentrations of O₃ in 2022 and 2023 in relation to the EU target value

Notes: The map shows the 93.2nd percentile of the O₃ maximum daily eight−hour mean, representing the 26th-highest value in a complete series. It is related to the O₃ target value.

Data are presented here for one year only instead of the average over a three-year period, as stated in the definition of the EU target value for O₃.

Source: EEA’s AQ e-reporting database.

The highest concentrations in 2022 were found in some Mediterranean and central European countries (Map 3 and Figure 7).

Table 5. Country status for O₃ in 2022 and 2023  

Notes: (^a) all the reporting countries. 

The stations in Kosovo, although reported, did not get the minimum data coverage to estimate the relevant ozone statistics.

Source: EEA’s AQ e-reporting database.

Figure 6. Percentage of reporting monitoring stations registering O₃ concentrations above the EU target value and the WHO guideline levels in 2022 and 2023

The long-term EU objective for ozone of 120µg/m³ was met at 16% of monitoring stations in 2022.

Italy reported exceedances of the O₃ target value for the protection of health based on assessment models for three air quality zones. Italy and Poland reported exceedances of the O₃ long-term objective for the protection of health in 9 and 46 air quality zones, respectively.

Figure 7. O₃ concentrations in 2022 by country in relation to the EU target value

Note: The figure shows, per country, the concentrations of each reported station, the minimum and maximum concentrations, the median and the 25th and 75th percentiles of all the measurements (93.2nd percentile of O₃ maximum daily eight-hour mean).

Data are presented here for one year only, not the average over a three-year period as stated in the definition of the EU target value for O₃.

In 2023, the long-term EU objective for ozone was met at 14% of monitoring stations.

The leading source of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) is road transport, which emits NO₂ close to the ground, mostly in densely populated areas, contributing to population exposure. Other important sources are combustion processes in industry and energy supply.

Concentrations above the annual limit value were found in many Turkish cities and some big cities with a high volume of traffic (Map 4 and Figure 9).

Map 4. Concentrations of NO₂ in 2022 and 2023 in relation to the EU annual limit value and the WHO annual guideline level

Source:  EEA´s AQ e-reporting database.

Table 6. Country status for NO₂ in 2022 and 2023

Notes: (^a) all the reporting countries; (^b) all the reporting countries, except Kosovo; (^c): all the reporting countries.

The stations from Kosovo, although reported, did not get the minimum data coverage to estimate the NO₂ statistics related to the WHO air quality daily guideline level.

Source: EEA’s AQ e-reporting database.

Figure 8. Percentage of reporting monitoring stations registering NO₂ concentrations above the EU limit values and the WHO guideline levels in 2022 and 2023

In 2022, 2% of monitoring stations registered concentrations of NO₂ above the EU annual limit value (Figure 8), 76% of which were traffic stations. Concentrations above the NO₂ WHO annual guideline level were registered at 74% of all monitoring stations, 45% of which were traffic stations.

Belgium, Italy and Poland reported exceedances of the NO₂ annual limit value based on assessment models for three, two and four air quality zones, respectively.

Figure 9. NO₂ concentrations in 2022 by country and in relation to the EU annual limit value and the WHO annual guideline level

Note: The figure shows, per country, the concentrations of each reported station, the minimum and maximum concentrations, the median and the 25th and 75^th percentiles of all the measurements (annual mean NO₂ concentrations).

In 2023, 1% of monitoring stations registered concentrations of NO₂ above the annual limit value, all of which were traffic stations. 68% of monitoring stations registered concentrations above the WHO annual guideline level, 46% of which were traffic stations.

Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is a carcinogenic pollutant emitted mainly from the combustion of coal and wood for heating and, to a lesser extent, from industrial installations and the combustion of agricultural waste.

The highest concentrations were found in Italy and eastern Europe (Map 5 and Figure 10), where the use of coal and other solid fuels for residential heating is widespread.

Map 5. Concentrations of BaP in 2022

Source: EEA’s AQ e-reporting database

Country status for BaP in 2022: 12 out of 27 reporting countries, all of which were EU Member States, registered values above 1.0 ng/m³. Concentrations above 1.0 ng/m³ were registered at 25% of the reported monitoring stations, the majority of which were urban (78%) or suburban (18%). Greece and Poland reported exceedances of the BaP target value based on assessment models for one and 32 air quality zones, respectively.

Figure 10. BaP concentrations in 2022 by country

Note: The figure shows, per country, the concentrations of each reported station, the minimum and maximum concentrations, the median and the 25th and 75th percentiles of all the measurements (annual mean BaP concentrations).

Country status for sulphur dioxide (SO₂) in 2022:

• 4 out of 37 reporting countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Türkiye, North Macedonia and Serbia) — none of them EU Member States — registered levels above the EU daily limit value of 125µg/m³;
• 17 countries, including nine EU Member States, registered values above the WHO daily guideline level of 40µg/m^{3 [5]} .

In 2022, 1% of reporting monitoring stations registered concentrations above the EU daily limit value and 6% of stations registered concentrations above the WHO daily guideline level.

In 2023, 11 reporting stations outside the EU (nine in Bosnia and Herzegovina and two in North Macedonia) registered concentrations of SO₂ above the EU daily limit value. In the same year, concentrations above the WHO daily guideline level were registered in 13 countries (including 10 EU Member States) out of 33 reporting countries.

Concentrations above the corresponding EU limit or target values were also registered in 2022 for the following pollutants:

• carbon monoxide (CO) at one station, located in the non-EU Member State of Serbia, out of 35 reporting countries;
• for benzene and lead, no stations reported concentrations above EU annual limit values in the 28 and 30 reporting countries, respectively. Italy reported exceedances of the benzene annual limit value based on assessment models for one air quality zone;
• arsenic in six stations across three EU Member States (Belgium, Finland and Poland, with two stations each) out of 29 reporting countries. Poland reported exceedances of the arsenic annual target value based on assessment models for two air quality zones;
• cadmium at one station, located in the EU Member State of Bulgaria, out of 30 reporting countries;
• nickel in four stations located in four EU Member States (Finland, France, Germany and Italy) out of 29 reporting countries.